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Psyo 121 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Personality definition

A

Individuals characteristic style of behaving, thinking and feeling

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2
Q

What are the two ways psychologists attempt to explain personality differences

A

Prior events- have shaped personality (genes, brain structure, subconscious, circumstances)
Anticipated events- motivate a person to reveal certain personality traits (perspective, hopes, fears, aspirations)

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3
Q

What are the three ways we measure personality?

A

-Personality inventories
-projective techniques
-technology

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4
Q

What data technique do personality inventories heavily rely on?

A

Self report- a method in which people provide subjective info in their own thoughts, feelings or behaviours typically via questionnaire or interview (TIPI)

Researchers can combine responses to get a sense of their personality

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5
Q

What are some pros and cons of self reporting experiments?

A

Pros:
-Easy to administer
-minimal need for interpretation

Cons:
-accuracy dependent on participants responses
-tendency to report in a socially desirable way
-cannot report things they are unaware of
-inaccuracies in recollection

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6
Q

How do projective tests evaluate personality?

A

Designer to reveal inner aspects of individuals personalities by analysis of their responses to standard series of ambiguous stimuli

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7
Q

Projective technique assumption

A

Developers assume that people will project personality factors that are outside of their awareness without censorship.

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8
Q

Rorschach ink blot test

A

Projective technique used to reveal respondents inner thoughts and feelings by analysis of unstructured inkblots

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9
Q

Thematic appreciation test (TAT)

A

A projective technique in which respondents underlying motives and concerns and the way they see the social world are believed to be revealed through analysis of the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people.

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10
Q

What is the main problem with projective tests?

A

They are open to biases of the examiner, as examiners must always add an interpretation.

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11
Q

What are a couple ways psychologists use technology to measure personalities

A

-EAR (electronically activated recorder)-> captures snippets of speaking and revealed men and women talk equal amounts
-social media-> people not in lab conditions, revealed females use more words about emotion, males use more swear words and words about objects

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12
Q

What are the four main approaches to studying personality

A

-trait biological
-psychodynamic
-humanistic existential
-social cognitive

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13
Q

How do we use the trait approach to describe personality and what is a trait?

A

Use trait terms to characterize differences among individuals.

Trait- a relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way (Gordon Allport)

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14
Q

How did Gordon Allport define personality?

A

Personally- Combination of traits

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15
Q

What are the two basic explanations for behaviour based on traits

A

1) traits are pre existing dispositions of people that reliably trigger behaviour (Allport)
-use personality inventories to measure them
2) traits are motivations that guide behaviour (Murray)
- use projective test to measure them

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16
Q

How did psychologists use adjectives that describe personality to define core traits

A

They used factor analysis- hierarchical approach that sorts trait terms into a small number of factors based on how people use the traits to rate themselves.

More general/ abstract traits at the top, and more specific at the bottom (general=core traits?)

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17
Q

What do study’s using factor analysis reveal?

A

They reveal how traits are related to one another. Define aspects of different factors, represented as continuum, ranging from one extreme trait to its opposite.

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18
Q

Who created the two factor analysis (measuring personality) and what was it?

A

-Created by Hans Eysenck
-revealed that there are two dimensions of personality
(Extroversion/introversion)
(Neuroticism/ emotional stability)

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19
Q

What are Big Five dimensions of personality ?

A

The traits of the five factor personality model: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN).

Currently supported by most researchers (favoured model)

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20
Q

What are the three main reasons that the big five is supported

A

1)confirmed by modern factor analysis
2)same five factors have emerged in many studies
3)evident in a large range of participants (universal)

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21
Q

True or false personalities remain fairly stable over lifetime?

A

True

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22
Q

How does behavioural genetics signify the importance of biological factors in regards to personality?

A

-From recent studies it is revealed that 40 percent of variability among individuals personalities results from genetics.
-more similarity in genetics = more similar personalities

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23
Q

What did twin studies reveal about the importance of genetics

A
  • suggest that the big five derive from genetic differences ranges from .44 to .54
  • reveal that shared environments has little impact on personality (similarities is personality of siblings mostly due to genetic similarities)
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24
Q

What are some minor differences found in personalities of men and women

A

Men report higher:
-assertiveness
-self esteem
-sensation seeking

Women have higher:
-neuroticism
-agreeableness
-conscientiousness

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25
Q

Social role theory definition’s

A

Evolutionary perspective that holds men and women evolved different personality characteristics because their reproductive success depends on certain behaviours. Cultural perspective holds that differences between men and women result from cultural expectations

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26
Q

What did Eysenck think caused people to have differences in extraversion/introversion?

A

-Extroverts pursue stimulation because their reticular formation is not easily stimulated
-Introverts’ cortex is more easily stimulated

Note: this is generally supported

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27
Q

How does the ability to concentrate differ for extroverts vs introverts

A

Extroverts: perform well at tasks that are done in noisy, arousing context
Introverts: better at tasks that require concentration in tranquil contexts

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28
Q

What two brain systems did Jeffrey Gray claim are reflected by extraversion and neuroticism?

A

-behavioural activation system (BAS): the “go” system, activates approach in anticipation of reward
-behavioural inhibition system (BIS):
the “stop” system, inhibits behaviour in response to stimuli signalling punishment

(Introverted person generally low on BAS and high on BIS)

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29
Q

What studies conducted on animals revealed cross species commonality, supporting biological mechanisms underlying traits?

A

-Study conducted on hyenas, where their personalities we rated on scales (dimensions similar to big five)
-similar studies on guppies and octopi

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30
Q

What does the evolutionary psychology perspective reveal about personality?

A

Differences in personalities reflect different adaptations that have evolved to deal with survival and reproduction

(Passed on through process of natural selection)

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31
Q

Why study animals when studying personality

A

-better measure of physiology
-naturalistic behaviour
-accelerated lifespan

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32
Q

What was the approach called that Sigmund Freud and followers used to measure personality?

A

Psychodynamic approach- regards personality as formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness—motives that can produce emotional disorders

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33
Q

What was Freud’s method for treating patients

A

Psychoanalysis- theory of personality as it pertains to analysis of thoughts and behaviours

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34
Q

What were the three systems of the mind that Freud proposed in order to emotional difficulties?

A

Id- part of the mind containing the drives present at birth; it is the source of bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressive drives (pleasure principle)

Superego- mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority (conscience)

Ego- the component of personality developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life’s practical demands (reality principle)

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35
Q

What did Freud believe determines a persons individual brain structure?

A

The relative strength of the interactions among the three systems of the mind

(Id forces personal needs, superego forces pressure to quell those needs, ego forces reality’s demands)

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36
Q

What did Freud think controlled the dynamics among the id ego and superego?

A

Anxiety- unpleasant feeling that arises when unwanted feelings or thoughts occur

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37
Q

What did Freud suggest the ego signals in response to anxiety

A

Defence mechanisms- unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses

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38
Q

Repression mechanism definition

A

Removing painful experience and unacceptable impulses from the conscious mind “motivated forgetting”

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39
Q

Rationalization mechanism definition

A

Giving a reasonable sounding explanation for unacceptable feelings and behaviour to conceal underlying motives and feelings

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40
Q

Reaction formation definition

A

Unconsciously replacing threatening inner wishes and fantasies with an exaggerated version of their opposite

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41
Q

Projection mechanism definition

A

Attributing one’s own threatening feelings, motives or impulses to another person or group

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42
Q

Regression mechanism definition

A

Reverting to an immature behaviour or earlier stage of development, at a time when things felt more secure, to deal with internal conflict and perceived threat

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43
Q

Displacement mechanism definition

A

Shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to neutral or less threatening alternative

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44
Q

Identification mechanism definition

A

Dealing with feelings of threat and anxiety by unconsciously taking on the characteristics of another person who seems more powerful or better able to cope

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45
Q

Sublimation mechanism definition

A

Channeling unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives into socially acceptable and culturally enhancing activities

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46
Q

Freud beloved a persons basic personality formed before 6 years of age during a series of periods. Theses periods were called?

A

Psychosexual stages- personality is formed as children experience sensation from specific body areas and caregivers redirect or interfere with those “pleasures.” As adults interfere, the child experiences conflict.

No research to support these stages

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47
Q

Humanistic psychologists

A

Emphasize positive, optimistic view of human nature, highlight people’s inherent goodness and potential for personal growth

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48
Q

Existential psychologists

A

Emphasize individual as a responsible agent, free to create and live their life while negotiations issue of meaning of reality of death

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49
Q

Humanistic existential approach to study personally

A

Integrate humanistic and existential fields with focus on how to achieve the optimal personality

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50
Q

What do humanists propose as a major factor in personality

A

Self actualization tendency: human motivation toward realizing inner potential

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51
Q

What does the hierarchy of needs suggest for self actualization

A

Only when basic needs are met can one pursue higher needs, culminating in self actualization.

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52
Q

How do humanists explain individual personality differences

A

They arise from the various ways that the environment facilitates or blocks attempts to satisfy psychological needs.

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53
Q

What is flow?

A

Tasks that are too challenging cause anxiety and those that are too easy cause boredom.

Tasks that exactly match one’s abilities create a mental state of energized focus called flow

People are happiest during times of flow

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54
Q

Existential approach to personality

A

School of thought that regards personality as governed by an individuals ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death.

Existentialists agree with lots of humanistic ideas

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55
Q

Angst definition

A

Existential psychologists define angst as the anxiety produced by the difficulties we face in finding the meaning to life and in accepting the responsibility of making free choices

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56
Q

How do people deal with angst and dread

A

-pursue superficial answers
-defences people construct form the basis of their personality (ex. focus on accruing material possessions, drugs, tech use, TV)

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57
Q

How do existentialists suggest dealing with angst

A

They suggest that a healthier solution is to face issues head on and learn to accept and tolerate the pain of existence.

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58
Q

Definition of the social-cognitive approach

A

Views Personality on terms of how a person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them. (How a person experiences and interprets situations)

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59
Q

What are the two things social-cognitive psychologist believe cause behaviour

A

The interaction between personality and situation

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60
Q

Person situation controversy

A

The question of whether behaviour is caused more by personality or by situational factors

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61
Q

What did the social cognitive psychologist Walter Mischel argue was wrong with the trait approach? And what did this lead him to conclude?

A
  • measured personality traits often do a poor job of predicting individuals behaviour
    -how a person behaves in one situation may not extrapolate to another

Concluding that situational factors were more important than traits in determining behaviours

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62
Q

What did the hartshrone and may experiment reveal after testing children’s honestly

A

Found that children’s willingness to cheat was not consistent across situations. Their dishonesty was inconsistent

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63
Q

After Walter mischel, what did social cognitive psychologists conclude in regards to the person situation controversy?

A

-when situations are powerful, people will behave similarity (funeral)
-when situations are more moderate, personality can more readily influence behaviour

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64
Q

What do social cognitive theorists believe patterns of personality consistency arise from?

A

-from the way different people interpret situations and pursue goals within situations

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65
Q

How will we change our personality/behaviour based on who we are with?

A

-will change language, tone of voice, warmth in communication
(Ex. Talking to babies, bilinguals shift personality based on language, people in power downplay competence to appear more likeable)

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66
Q

What did George Kelly suggest how people interpret situations

A

He suggested that differences in judgement can help us understand perceivers personality

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67
Q

What are personal contracts and what are they used for?

A

-They are dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences
-the application of personal constructs develops a persons perspective

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68
Q

What did Kelly propose a persons personal constructs says about them

A

He proposed that different personal constructs are key to personality differences between people, as different construals lead to different behaviours.

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69
Q

How do people translate goals into behaviour? (Based on their perspective)

A

Outcome expectancies- a persons assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behaviour

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70
Q

Locus of control

A

Persons tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external to the environment

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71
Q

How do people with internal versus external locus of control differ

A

Internal (control of own destiny): less anxiety, increased achievement, better stress coping

External (destiny determined by luck or other people): opposite affect

72
Q

Self concept ( also called the Me)

A

What we think about ourselves, persons explicit knowledge of their own behaviours, traits and other personal characteristics

73
Q

Self esteem

A

How we feel about ourselves. The extent to which an individual likes, values and accepts the self.

74
Q

What are the two facets to the self proposed by William James

A

I - the self that thinks, experiences and acts in the world, a knower (like consciousness)

Me - the self that is an object in the world, the known. (Concept of a person… physical characteristics, traits, etc)

75
Q

What are the two ways that we store knowledge of ourselves as autobiographical memory developing our self concept?

A
  • as self narratives about episodes in our lives
    -as traits (self schemas- personality traits you find important for self concept)
76
Q

What is the effect of self relevance on memory?

A

Making judgements on traits of oneself as compares to others increases recall of traits later

  • causes activation of medial prefrontal cortex (stronger activation when judging yourself)
77
Q

What is Self verification and why do we tend to engage in it?

A

Self verification is the tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self concept.

We do this to confirm our self concept, in order to promote consistency in behaviour across situations.

78
Q

What does evolutionary psychology suggest about why we seek high self esteem

A

We do this because we have evolved to seek out belongingness and higher self esteem indicates that we are being accepted

79
Q

What is self serving bias and why do we have it?

A

Self serving bias shows people tend to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures. We do this to feel better about the self, as we are generally motivated to feel good about ourselves.

80
Q

Narcissism definition

A

A grandiose view of the self, combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others

81
Q

What is the name letter effect?

A

30 percent of people say that their favourite letter of the alphabet is the first letter of their first name

82
Q

What is implicit egotism

A

Hints of subtle systematic egotism biases that drive behaviour (people are unaware)… and example if name letter effect

83
Q

Social psychology

A

Study of the causes and consequences of sociality

84
Q

What are the two ways humans acquire resources

A

Hurting(aggression) or helping(cooperating)

85
Q

Aggression

A

Behaviour whose purpose is to harm another

86
Q

Frustration aggression hypothesis

A

Animals aggress when their goals are frustrated (frustration refers to obstruction of a goal)

87
Q

Proactive aggression

A

Aggression that is planned and purposeful

88
Q

When is proactive aggression conducted

A

Usually directed towards specific target and only occurs when the aggressor believes that the benefits outweighs the costs (not associated with a heightened state of arousal)

89
Q

Reactive aggression

A

Aggression that occurs spontaneously in response to a negative affective state

90
Q

What is reactive aggression conducted

A

It is strongly associated with pain and anger and not directed towards relevant target. Often occurs when even when costs outweigh benefits

91
Q

Which gender more frequently engages in physical aggression and what may be the reason

A

Men are more likely to engage in physical aggression, violent crimes mostly conducted by men.

Likely a result of higher levels of testosterone

92
Q

When is the effect of testosterone

A

Makes men more sensitive to provocations and less sensitive to retaliation.

Also high levels of test associated with walking purposefully, focusing more directly on people they’re talking to, speaking more forward.

93
Q

What are the most reliable ways to provoke an aggressive response in men.

A

-challenge his beliefs about his own status or dominance (more so for males with high self esteem)
-sensitive when competing for attention of women

94
Q

Which type of aggression do women more commonly use

A

Proactive aggression, almost always in verbal form.

95
Q

William James suggested that evolutionary biology has determined our fare to be aggressive. What were the two main arguments against this?

A

-humanity has become less aggressive over the last century
-aggression varies across time and location

96
Q

What do variations of aggression over time and location suggest?

A

Suggests that the environment plays and important role in determining whether our innate capacity for aggression will result in aggressive behaviour. (Ex. Owning guns and playing violent video games promote aggression)

97
Q

Cooperation

A

Behaviour by two or more individuals that leads to mutual benefit

98
Q

What is the greatest benefit of cooperation

A

When individuals work together each of them can often get more resources than either could get alone

99
Q

What is a good example for why cooperation is risky

A

The prisoners dilemma
-unable to be sure if everyone will cooperate

100
Q

What is the most important quality that people value in other people in their lives

A

Trustworthiness

101
Q

What did Gross’ experiment testing trustworthiness using die rolls reveal about people?

A

Even honest people were more likely to want dishonest player since it benefitted them.

Hints at human desire to maintain reputation of trustworthiness while benefiting from someone else’s dishonesty

102
Q

What is the ultimatum game an what did it reveal about what is important to people

A

Ultimatum game is where one player divides a monetary prize into two parts. Second player can either accept or reject, if reject both players get nothing.

If the offer was unfair the second player often rejected… fairness more important than rationality (humans dislike inequity)

103
Q

Group definition

A

A collection of people who have something in common that distinguishes them from others

104
Q

How can group formation decrease risks of cooperation

A

Members of a group can generally trust that other members will be nice to them. This is because of group favouritism which suggests that people are almost always positively prejudiced against members of own group.

105
Q

Prejudice

A

An evaluation of another person based solely on his or her group membership (can be positive or negative)

106
Q

A large cost of group formation is that it makes it more difficult to make a good decision, what are the reasons for this.

A
  • groups usually don’t capitalize on the expertise of their members (status over expertise)
    -common knowledge effect: tendency for group discussions to focus on information all members share (often unimportant)
    -group polarization: groups with moderate opinions end up making extreme decisions ( more extreme than any member would of made alone)
    -groupthink- tendency for groups to reach consensus in order to facilitate interpersonal harmony
107
Q

What does the group cost deindividualization refer to?

A

Immersion in a group causes people to become less concerned with their personal values ( become more focussed on others)

Causes riots and mobbing

108
Q

Diffusion of responsibility definition

A

Tendency of individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when surrounded by other who are acting the same way

Extends to riots and mobs etc

109
Q

Social loafing definition

A

The tendency of people to expend less effort when they are in a group than when they are alone. Likely caused by diffusion of responsibility.

110
Q

Bystander intervention definition and what studies of it reveal

A

The act of helping strangers in an emergency situation.

Diffusion of responsibility makes people less likely to help an innocent person in distress when in larger groups.

111
Q

Why do we bother with groups?

A

-minimize risks of cooperation
-belonging to a group is a source of psychological and physical well being
-gives people a source of identity

112
Q

Altruism

A

Intentional behaviour that benefits another at a potential cost to oneself

113
Q

Why do we question if people are ever altruistic

A

Behaviours that appear altruistic tend to have a hidden benefit for those who do them

114
Q

What is Kim selection and what is it an example of

A

Kin selection is the process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives.

It is and example of one a hidden benefit of actions that may appear altruistic

115
Q

Reciprocal altruism

A

Behaviour that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future

116
Q

Are humans capable of genuine altruism

A

Yes, we tip waiters with no expected return, we hold open door for people we don’t know and sometimes offer things to strangers for free.

117
Q

Individualistic culture definition

A

Irritation to being singled out and noticing inequity

118
Q

Collectivist cultures

A

Needs of many outweigh the few

119
Q

What did the experiment conducted by Jonas asking students to give up their parking sport versus everyone’s parking sport reveal about culture.

A

European American students respond in accordance to an individualistic culture

Latino and Asian American students responded in accordance to collectivist culture.

120
Q

What did the Clark and Hatfield experiment where trained actors approached opposite sex strangers and asked them if they would go out/ go to bed reveal about gender differences in selectivity

A

Women tend to be more choosier than men when it come to selecting sexual partners

121
Q

What are some reasons why women are choosier than men when selecting sexual partners

A

1) women produce a small number of eggs in lifetime
2)conception eliminates ability to conceive for at least 9 months
3) pregnancy requires increased nutrition and poses heath risks
4) women have more options to select from
5) women more socially chastised for sexual behaviour

122
Q

What are some situational factors that influence attraction

A

-proximity
-proximity also increases amount of times we see them, and humans prefer familiar stimuli

123
Q

Mere exposure effect

A

Tendency for liking of a stimulus to increase with the amount of exposure to that stimulus

Example: people prefer mirror reversed images of themselves

124
Q

What did the study conducted by UBC at the capilano suspension bridge, where a female actor gave out her number to men at different points of the bridge point out.

A

People often misinterpret their physiological arousal as a sign of attraction, which is the reason why more men called back when they met in the middle of the bridge.

125
Q

What did the walster experiment involving university students being paired up at dances reveal about physical factors of attraction?

A

Revealed that how much each person liked their partner was 100 percent based on appearance. Hotness matters a lot!

126
Q

What are the advantages of being attractive

A

-get more dates
-more sex
-more friends
-more fun
-more money
-better social skills

127
Q

What are the two downsides of being very attractive?

A

-other people sometimes feel threatened by beautiful people
-people often don’t sympathize with beautiful peoples problems

128
Q

What are the factors of attraction that are consistent across cultures

A

Body shape- attractive for men to be shaped triangular and women to be shaped like an hourglass

Symmetry- attractive when faces have bilateral symmetry

Age- attractive for men to have mature feature and females to have immature features (women like older men, men like younger women)

129
Q

Certain factors promote attractiveness, and this is because nature has designed us to be attracted to people with good genes. How do these features indicate good genes?

A

Body shape- more triangular men = more testosterone/ hourglass females = more estrogen

Symmetry- asymmetry often caused by disease or genetic mutation

Age- younger women are more fertile, older men have more resources to provide

130
Q

True or false? Gay and lesbian people appreciate the same physical features too?

A

True

131
Q

True or false? Most people tend to approach, date, and marry someone who is about as attractive as they are?

A

True

132
Q

Inner qualities examples

A

Personalities, points of view, attitudes, beliefs, values, ambitions, abilities

133
Q

How do inner qualities play a role in attraction

A

The initial onset of attraction is determined by appear but once people interact, they move past physical, and inner qualities determine if interest is sustained

134
Q

Homophily

A

The tendency for people to like others who are similar to themselves

135
Q

What are the reasons for homophily (similarity attractive)?

A

1) easier to interact with people who are similar to us
2) when someone shares our attitudes and beliefs we feel validated
3) can expect people to like us for the same reasons, being liked is attractive

136
Q

How does self esteem relate to attraction?

A

More attracted to people who don’t challenge our self esteem. Extraordinary athletes will challenge self esteem, more attracted to people with small pockets of incompetence.

137
Q

Why do humans commonly have relationships that last for a lifetime as compared to other animals.

A

-humans are born under developed and need lots of care-> parenting in long term relationships makes things easier

138
Q

What are the two different kinds of love?

A

Passionate love- and experience involving feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction

Compassionate love- experience involving affection, trust, and concern for a partners well being

139
Q

What are the differences between speeds, trajectories and durations of the two kinds of love.

A

Passionate love is what brings people together- it has rapid onset, reaches its peak quickly, and begins to diminish after a few months

Compassionate love is what keeps people together- takes time to get started, grows slowly, and never stops growing. (more associated with marital satisfaction)

140
Q

People tend to remain in relationships as long as they perceive a favourable ratio of costs to benefits. What does this ratio depend on?

A

-comparison level for alternatives -> cost benefit ratio that a person believers he or she would attain in another relationship

-how much the person has already invested into the relationship

-equity -> a state of affair in which the cost benefit ratios of two partners are roughly equally favourable (people less distressed when there is equity)

141
Q

Social cognition

A

Process by which people come to understand others

142
Q

What are the two different types of inferences?

A

Category based inferences- inferences based on information about the categories to which a person belongs

Target based inferences- inferences based on the information about an individual’s behaviour

143
Q

Stereotyping definition

A

Process of drawing inferences about individuals based on their category membership

144
Q

Which dimensions do stereotypes seem to vary on?

A

Warmth- how much we like someone
Competence- ability to accomplish goals

145
Q

Why may our stereotypes be inaccurate?

A

-picked up from other people
-picked up from direct observation-> people tend to pay special attention when two uncommon things happen at the same time (why majorities overestimate violent crime in minorities)

146
Q

Why are stereotypes overused?

A

Human categories are so variable that stereotypes often do not give clues about individuals populating those categories. (Stereotypes are more useful when variability is low… almost never is for humans)

147
Q

What often tricks us into believing variability is low?

A

Categorizing things tricks people into thinking variability is low within a group

(Leads us to overestimate usefulness of stereotypes)

148
Q

Stereotypes are self perpetuating. What are the three things things that could happen when a person interacts with a person whom they hold a stereotype?

A

-behavioural confirmation: tendency of targets to behave as observers expect them to behave (could occur as a result of stereotype threat)

-perceptual confirmation: the tendency of observers to see what they expect to see (sometimes happens when targets do not confirm to stereotypes )

-subtyping: tendency for observers to think targets who disconfirm stereotypes as “exceptions to the rule” (happened when targets clearly disconfirm observers stereotypes)

149
Q

True or false? Stereotyping often happens unconsciously and automatically and can be trained out?

A

True

150
Q

What are the techniques for unconscious bias training and which method is more effective

A

-common knowledge/ perspective taking (ineffective)
-telling stories of people defying the stereotypes they portray (effective)

151
Q

Attributions

A

Inferences about the causes of people’s behaviour

152
Q

Situational attributions

A

When it is thought that a persons behaviour is caused by and aspect of a situation

153
Q

Dispositional attributions

A

When it is thought that a persons behaviour is caused by an enduring trait

154
Q

What are the questions we should ask when determining if a persons behaviour is due to a situational or disposition attribution?

A

1) is the behaviour consistent
2) is there consensus in that other people are performing this behaviour
3) is this behaviour distinct from others this person makes

155
Q

Correspondence bias (fundamental attribution error)

A

The tendency to make a dispositional attribution when we should instead make a situational attribution

156
Q

Why do we fall into the trap of correspondency bias?

A

1)situational causes may be invisible
2)situational attributions are more difficult to make

157
Q

Actor observer effect

A

The tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviour and dispositional attributions for the identical behaviour of others.

158
Q

Social influence

A

Ability to change or direct another persons behaviour

159
Q

What are the three motives that lead attempts at social influence?

A

Hedonic principle- motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain
Approval motive- motivated to be accepted and avoid being rejected
3) accuracy motive- motivated to believe what is right and avoid believing what is wrong

160
Q

Over justification effect definition

A

Occurs when a reward decreases and person’s intrinsic motivation to perform a behaviour.

161
Q

Reactance definition

A

Unpleasant feeling that arises when people feel they are being coerced (when people experience it they respond with the exact thing they were coerced not to do)

162
Q

Normative influence

A

When another’s persons behaviour provides information about what is appropriate

163
Q

Norm definition

A

Customary standards for behaviour that are widely shared by members of a culture (ex. not talking in an elevator)

164
Q

Norm of reciprocity definition

A

The unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefited them

165
Q

Door in the face technique

A

An influence strategy that involves getting someone to accept a small request by first getting them to refuse a large request

166
Q

Conformity

A

The tendency to do what others do

167
Q

Obedience definition

A

Tendency to do what authorities tell us to do. Most influence is normative

168
Q

Attitude definition

A

Enduring positive or negative evaluation of a stimulus (apples taste good)

169
Q

Belief definition

A

Enduring a piece of knowledge about a stimulus (apples are in the fridge)

170
Q

When does Informational influence occur

A

When another persons behaviour provides information about what is good or true

171
Q

Persuasion definition

A

A person’s attitudes or beliefs are influenced by a communication from another person

172
Q

What are the two types of persuasion and what are their definitions?

A

Systematic persuasion- the process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to reason (politician discussing goals and principles for election)

Heuristic persuasion- Process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to habit or emotion. Use simple shortcuts or rules of thumb. (politician attending community events and shaking hands and kissing babies

173
Q

True or false? When motivation is high to analyze evidence from speech there is a more systematic persuasion effect (argument content) and when motivation is low more heuristic persuasion effect (status of speaker)

A

True

174
Q

True or false? People are motivated to be consistent?

A

True

175
Q

Foot in the door technique definition

A

Small request followed by large request (people want to be consistent, if agree to small will likely agree to large)

176
Q

Cognitive dissonance definition

A

Unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes or beliefs

Psyo 121 (3 decks)

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