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PSYC 361 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Animal learns that making certain responses has / influences certain outcomes

A

instrumental conditioning

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2
Q

rule governing how organisms learn, derived from robust and precise experiments of simple behaviour

A

learning theory

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3
Q

The animal passively learns associations

A

pavlovian / classical conditioning

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4
Q

If the effect of behaving a certain way is satisfying/rewarding, the behaviour is more likely to be repeated. If the effect is annoying/punishing it is less likely to be repeated

A

law of effect

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5
Q

says that the behaviour is highest initially, then decreases over time

A

instrumental learning curve

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6
Q

when a connection is formed between specific stimuli and specific response

A

S-R learning

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7
Q

Lashley showed that stimuli do not directly invoke pattern of responses (motor programs) by demonstrating monkey’s ability to ______

A

Transfer learning of tool manipulation from one hand to another

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8
Q

The monkeys who were able to transfer learning show ______ and _____ ______ learning which is not accounted for in S-R learning

A

flexibility, goal-directed

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9
Q

Animals learn to press lever / interact with manipulanda in boxes to earn food/water or avoid/ experience footshook

A

skinner box

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10
Q

presentation of stimulus increases probability of preceding response

A

positive reinforcer

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11
Q

removal of a stimulus increases probability of preceding response

A

negative reinforcer

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12
Q

a stimulus that has the potential to become a conditioned reinforcer, but is not yet one

A

conditioned stimulus

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13
Q

a stimulus that has proven to support new learning in an organism, and that has acquired the appetitive qualities of the US (is reinforcing itself)

A

conditioned /secondary reinforcer

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14
Q

maximal conditioning is achieved if reinforcers occur ______ in time to the response ~_______s after response

A

close, 0.5

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15
Q

accident reinforcement may cause ________

A

superstitious behaviour

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16
Q

false beliefs about the relationship between an action and outcome

A

superstitious belief

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17
Q

also known as an unconditioned stimulus

A

primary reinforcer

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18
Q

conditioned reinforcers can reinforcer a new _____ response (can substitute for a primary reinforcer), establish and maintain ________, maintain behaviour during ______, and mediate _____ between the response and delivery of reinforcement (bridge between action and US to build more tolerance to them)

A

learning, schedules of reinforcement, extinction, delays

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19
Q

schedule of reinforcement in which the ratio between the number of responses is made to earn a single reward

A

ratio schedules

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20
Q

a response is reinforced every n times it occurs

A

fixed ratio (FRn)

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21
Q

a variable number of responses must be made before reinforcement occurs, but on average the number of responses = n.

A

variable ratio (VRn)

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22
Q

a common element in gambling is responding on ______ ______ schedules, which are harder to extinguished, as non-reward is actually more reinforcing (since you’re more likely to win on the next try).

A

partial reinforcement

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23
Q

a schedule of reinforcement in which the key factor is interval which elapses between reinforcement delivery and response

A

interval schedules

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24
Q

the first response made n seconds after reinforcement delivery is reinforced

A

fixed interval (FIn)

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25
Q

variable amount of time must elapse between the last time reinforcement was delivered and the next awarded responses, but on average, the amount of time = n

A

variable interval (VIn)

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26
Q

______ schedules produce faster conditioning than variable schedules, and _______ schedules produce faster conditioning than interval schedules

A

fixed, ratio

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27
Q

_______ schedules will produce a more steady state of consistent responding, but takes longer, while _____ schedules will result in faster _____ over time

A

interval, ratio, acquisition

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28
Q

reinforcement is a sufficient condition for changing behaviour

A

weak law of effect

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29
Q

a specific feature of a reinforcer is necessary conditioning for reinforcing effects to occur

A

strong law of effect

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30
Q

The problem with response theories is that just because a stimulus _____ the probability of responding does not necessarily mean it is a weaker ______.

A

decreases, reinforcer

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31
Q

in the self administration of ______, a higher dose results in ______ administration, however, this does not mean that a higher dose is a _______ reinforcer

A

cocaine, less, weaker

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32
Q

_____ rewards are generally better reinforcers

A

bigger

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33
Q

the two assumptions made when we say that rewards act as reinforcers

A
  1. learning is an associative process
  2. the role of rewards is to strengthen the formation of associations
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34
Q

when learning occurs but is not manifest until a reward is introduced

A

Latent learning

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35
Q

Tolmand and Henzik tested hungry rats in a maze, either with or without a _____. Rats that were given rewards ran ______, and rats that were not ran _____, however, they still completed the maze. When the rats without rewards were given rewards, their performance ______ improved with fewer errors in one session, showing latent learning had taken place

A

rewards, faster, slower, immediately

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36
Q

extinction of a previously rewarded response can occur without performance of the response in the absence of reward

A

latent extinction

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37
Q

the anticipation or expectancy of reward arouses a drive state which prompts us to engage in activities that lead to rewards

A

theory of incentive motivation

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38
Q

theories of incentive motivation attempt to capture the way in which objects and events in the world can acquire ______, and drive _______, even in the absence of a clear ______ need

A

high motivational value, behaviour, biological

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39
Q

An experiment with animals responding to either ____ or _____ rewards, then shifting to the opposite reward, show that performance changes to appropriate levels. but are too fast to be explained by _____. Thus, it is likely that bigger rewards result in more _____, rather than better _____

A

large, small, learning, motivation, learning

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40
Q

the enhancement or diminishment, relative to normal, of perception, cognition and related performance as a result of immediately previous or simultaneous exposure to a stimulus of lesser or greater value in the same dimension

A

contrast effects

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41
Q

contrast effects show that it is not just the _____ of rewards that guides behaviour, but the _______ assessment of value

A

absolute, subjective

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42
Q

if shifted from a large to small reward, an animal will respond less for the smaller reward than if it had never been exposed to the large reward

A

negative contrast effect

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43
Q

If shifted from a small to large reward, it will respond more for the larger reward than if it had never been exposed to the small reward

A

positive contrast effect

44
Q

crespi (1994) showed that animals develop different amounts of _____ ______ (“eagerness”) depending on prior experience with rewards

A

anticipatory excitement

45
Q

the incentive motivational view says that _____ enhances incentive value, rather than energizing behaviour directly. This is shown in Tolman’s experiment as only _____ animals show latent learning - if sated, the food has no incentive value

A

deprivation, hungry

46
Q

hunger makes food a better incentive, thirst, makes water a better incentive, etc. Reflects the palatability of the US

A

alliesthesia

47
Q

S-R ____ learning relies on _____ memories for the motor program that has been strengthened via associations with the reward. However, behaviour is more sophisticated and______ than this, as ____ memories include representations of the food and of how nice it is

A

habit, procedural, flexible, declarative

48
Q

how motivated an organism is to work for reward

A

incentive value

49
Q

fIrst stage in devaluation experiment

A
  1. training in which a lever press results in food for both controls and experimental group
50
Q

second stage in devaluation experiment

A
  1. devaluation in which LiCl is injected into the exp. animals which makes them sick
51
Q

third stage in devaluation experiment

A
  1. first test - animals press lever but nothing results from it for both experimental group and control group - both groups press the lever at the same rate
52
Q

fourth stage in devaluation experiment

A
  1. re-exposure - both groups get exposed to the food again - this ensures that the experimental group knows that the food is what made them sick
53
Q

fifth stage in devaluation experiment

A
  1. second test - both groups are tested under extinction again for lever pressing - experimental group presses lever less than controls
54
Q

the devaluation experiment shows that a ______ change, which takes place during stage _____, does not instantly lead to ______ learning which takes place during stage ____

A

hedonic, 2, incentive, 4

55
Q

encodes changes in how much animals like the food, can be changed by devaluation/satiation, etc. Changes directly affect consummation of reward; reflects how much the animal likes the reward

A

hedonic value system

56
Q

How much the animal is willing to work for the reward; to what extent the outcome of the action is a desirable goal; reflects how much the animal wants the reward

A

instrumental incentive value

57
Q

animals have to learn through ______ that a change in the hedonic value of the food changes its ______ value; in other words, that the food is not worth working for when its not hungry)

A

experience, incentive

58
Q

a mismatch between hedonic and incentive value can be seen in disorders such as______ and ____-

A

depression, substance abuse

59
Q

repeated instrumental conditioning reduces the impact of ________, so that there is no room for _____ learning; this is due to the fact that you can change the value of food, but it won’t change the S-R response because there is no evaluation of ______

A

devaluation, incentive, goals

60
Q

to have incentive/hedonic value updating you need exposure to the change in _____ value in the _____ if incentive value

A

hedonic, context

61
Q

When a classically conditioned stimulus can modulate or enhance instrumental performance

A

pavlovian to instrumental transfer

62
Q

during _______, presentation of a CS can enhance the operant behaviour because it invokes the memory of the primary reinforcer, even though there is no direct relation between the CS and the _________

A

Extinction, instrumental action

63
Q

will the conditioned reinforcer determines _______ the animal is willing to work for something, in PIT, the animal is ______ to work for a reward by the _____

A

how hard, invoked, CS

64
Q

PIT can depend on the ________, for example, if the animal is very hungry there is ____ PIT, and if not there is low _______. This explains why when we go shopping while hungry, there is enhanced invoking of the memory of food with the food packaging, and thus we increase the instrumental behaviour of buying more

A

motivational state, high, PIT

65
Q

Varying the _______ such. as increasing training sessions so that training becomes _____ controlled, can make PIT insensitive to _______ _________.

A

instrumental training, S-R, reinforcer devaluation

66
Q

a procedure in which Olds and Milner placed an electrode in the medial forebrain bundle, lateral hypothalamus, and VTA, and allowed mice to press a lever for stimulation in those areas; found that there are high rates of pressing for these “pleasure centres”

A

intracranial self stimulation

67
Q

VTA which contains the cell bodies of DA cells, project to areas such as the frontal cortex and nucleus accumbens

A

mesocorticolimbic DA system

68
Q

ICSS causes dramatic increases of DA within the ______, a key site for reward-related learning and addiction

A

nucleus accumbens

69
Q

DA ______ increase ICSS, while DA ______ and lesions of the ________ DA system _______/____ it

A

agonists, antagonists, mesocorticolimbic, decrease/disrupt

70
Q

With lesions to the DA system, animals can still find things nice or nasty, but are no longer ______ to earn the reward (no longer _____ directed). This shows that there is a distinction between _____ and ____ motivation

A

motivated, goal, hedonic, incentive

71
Q

DA neurons fire when an ______ reward occurs, but once a CS-US association is established, DA neurons only fire to the ______. If an expected US does not turn up, DA neurons _____ firing. This shows that DA is a ______ signal for when something nice will turn up in the environment

A

unexpected, CS, pause, learning

72
Q

DA neurons ramp up their firing after CS presentation if US delivery is ______. The maximal ramping is seen when p(US) = ______ (maximal uncertainty)

A

uncertain, 0.5

73
Q

continuous, tonic DA is important for ______, while rapid bursts of DA is important for ________

A

motivation, reward learning

74
Q

Area in the rat brain that is akin to the human DLPFC and involved in planning, response selection, control of purposive actions and knowledge of action-outcome contingencies

A

Prelimbic cortex

75
Q

In order for actions to be goal directed, animals must understand 2 things:

A

that their actions result in the outcome, and that the outcome is a goal

76
Q

Frontal cortex is more involved when contingencies are _______ to learn

A

difficult

77
Q

Contingencies can be ______ by providing a reward regardless of whether an animals makes a response. In control animals, they know which action leads to outcome and _______. Animals with damage to the prelimbic cortex are not ______ and _____ responding to both rewards

A

degraded, stop responding only to the specific reward, goal-directed, decrease

78
Q

Neurons in this area represent the hedonic value of different rewards

A

Orbitofrontal cortex

79
Q

Neurons in the OFC show _____ activation to preferred food rewards, and then decrease in activity when this food is _______. Responses to other types of foods are _____

A

selective, sated, unaffected

80
Q

Damage to any of these areas prevents a change in the value of a reward from affecting response to a CS that predicts that reward (ie. prevents change in hedonic value from affecting incentive motivation)

A

Basolateral amygdala, OFC

81
Q

The idea that there is an optimal level of arousal for behaviour, in which intermediate levels of arousal are better than very high or very low states

A

Yerkes-Dodson law/Inverted U function

82
Q

____ or intellectually demanding tasks may require a low level of arousal for optimal performance, while tasks involving ________ or _____ may be performed better with higher levels of arousal (to increase motivation)

A

difficult, stamina, persistence

83
Q

caffeine impairs performance on _____ tasks, and enhances it on _____ tasks

A

hard, easy

84
Q

suggests that arousal reduces the range of cues an organism can attend to. Increased activation leads to focusing of attention to central field and less processing in periphery

A

EasterBrooke hypothesis

85
Q

The EasterBrooke hypothesis predicts that the _____ use of both relevant and irrelevant cues reduces _______, and that ______ cue are eliminated before relevant cues

A

simultaneous, response efficiency, irrelevant

86
Q

People who were more aroused made more _______ errors than ______ errors, showing that their attention to the _____ was decreased

A

interword, intraword, periphery

87
Q

recreational activity including art, entertainment, and philosophy, which as no biological function that we can clearly recognize

A

Ludic behaviour

88
Q

Surprise and incongruity

A

novelty

89
Q

the amount of information carried by a stimulus; ambiguity

A

uncertainty

90
Q

multiple responses aroused at the same time

A

conflict

91
Q

the number of distinguishable elements, dissimilarity of elements

A

complexity

92
Q

Vitz and Dorfman showed that the ______ ______ changes with expertise, such that high complexity things require _____ exposures to appreciate it

A

aesthetic appreciation, more

93
Q

_____ and _____ have been associated with elevated drug taking in humans

A

novelty, sensation seeking

94
Q

Piazza showed that high reactivity to novelty makes rats mores sensitive to _______, such that they produce more baseline movement and have a greater _____ in movement to it

A

amphetamine, increase

95
Q

When low reactivity and high reactivity rats were repeatedly injected with amphetamine, the differences in the locomotion _______, such that low reactivity rats also increase in movement

A

decrease

96
Q

Rats with higher reactivity self administer ______ amphetamine than rats with lower reactivity. However, if the rats are _____ to amphetamine, they do not differ in self administration

A

more, sensitized

97
Q

Drugs of abuse specifically increase DA in the ______ subregion of the nucleus accumbens

A

shell

98
Q

D1 receptor deficient mice fail to self-administer _____, but continue to self administer for ______ and _____

A

Cocaine, food, opiates

99
Q

The number of responses required for the outcome to be delivered steadily increases during the session

A

Progressive ratio of responses

100
Q

The point at which subjects cease responding for 15 minutes, terminating the session. This is quantified as the final ratio - the number of responses in the final completed ratio run of the session

A

Breakpoint

101
Q

Measure locomotor activity as the mouse explores a novel area

A

open field

102
Q

drug that blocks the endogenous ligand

A

antagonist

103
Q

a dopamine antagonist that blocks DA’s effects at all receptor subtypes

A

Cis-flupenthixol

104
Q

Low doses of Cis-flupenthixol can _____ self-administration of cocaine, as the rewarding properties of cocaine ______ when DA receptors are blocked, therefore rats need to take more drug to get the same feeling of reward

A

increase, decrease

105
Q

If the amount of time that rodents are allowed to self administer increases, you see an increase in the amount taken ______, and _____

A

per session, per hour

106
Q

increase in the hedonic set point, thought to represent the progressive loss of control over drug associated with drug addiction rather than just recreational drug taking

A

escalation

PSYC 361 (2 decks)

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