Midterm 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Animal learns that making certain responses has / influences certain outcomes
A
instrumental conditioning
2
Q
rule governing how organisms learn, derived from robust and precise experiments of simple behaviour
A
learning theory
3
Q
The animal passively learns associations
A
pavlovian / classical conditioning
4
Q
If the effect of behaving a certain way is satisfying/rewarding, the behaviour is more likely to be repeated. If the effect is annoying/punishing it is less likely to be repeated
A
law of effect
5
Q
says that the behaviour is highest initially, then decreases over time
A
instrumental learning curve
6
Q
when a connection is formed between specific stimuli and specific response
A
S-R learning
7
Q
Lashley showed that stimuli do not directly invoke pattern of responses (motor programs) by demonstrating monkey’s ability to ______
A
Transfer learning of tool manipulation from one hand to another
8
Q
The monkeys who were able to transfer learning show ______ and _____ ______ learning which is not accounted for in S-R learning
A
flexibility, goal-directed
9
Q
Animals learn to press lever / interact with manipulanda in boxes to earn food/water or avoid/ experience footshook
A
skinner box
10
Q
presentation of stimulus increases probability of preceding response
A
positive reinforcer
11
Q
removal of a stimulus increases probability of preceding response
A
negative reinforcer
12
Q
a stimulus that has the potential to become a conditioned reinforcer, but is not yet one
A
conditioned stimulus
13
Q
a stimulus that has proven to support new learning in an organism, and that has acquired the appetitive qualities of the US (is reinforcing itself)
A
conditioned /secondary reinforcer
14
Q
maximal conditioning is achieved if reinforcers occur ______ in time to the response ~_______s after response
A
close, 0.5
15
Q
accident reinforcement may cause ________
A
superstitious behaviour
16
Q
false beliefs about the relationship between an action and outcome
A
superstitious belief
17
Q
also known as an unconditioned stimulus
A
primary reinforcer
18
Q
conditioned reinforcers can reinforcer a new _____ response (can substitute for a primary reinforcer), establish and maintain ________, maintain behaviour during ______, and mediate _____ between the response and delivery of reinforcement (bridge between action and US to build more tolerance to them)
A
learning, schedules of reinforcement, extinction, delays
19
Q
schedule of reinforcement in which the ratio between the number of responses is made to earn a single reward
A
ratio schedules
20
Q
a response is reinforced every n times it occurs
A
fixed ratio (FRn)
21
Q
a variable number of responses must be made before reinforcement occurs, but on average the number of responses = n.
A
variable ratio (VRn)
22
Q
a common element in gambling is responding on ______ ______ schedules, which are harder to extinguished, as non-reward is actually more reinforcing (since you’re more likely to win on the next try).
A
partial reinforcement
23
Q
a schedule of reinforcement in which the key factor is interval which elapses between reinforcement delivery and response
A
interval schedules
24
Q
the first response made n seconds after reinforcement delivery is reinforced
A
fixed interval (FIn)
25
variable amount of time must elapse between the last time reinforcement was delivered and the next awarded responses, but on average, the amount of time = n
variable interval (VIn)
26
______ schedules produce faster conditioning than variable schedules, and _______ schedules produce faster conditioning than interval schedules
fixed, ratio
27
_______ schedules will produce a more steady state of consistent responding, but takes longer, while _____ schedules will result in faster _____ over time
interval, ratio, acquisition
28
reinforcement is a sufficient condition for changing behaviour
weak law of effect
29
a specific feature of a reinforcer is necessary conditioning for reinforcing effects to occur
strong law of effect
30
The problem with response theories is that just because a stimulus _____ the probability of responding does not necessarily mean it is a weaker ______.
decreases, reinforcer
31
in the self administration of ______, a higher dose results in ______ administration, however, this does not mean that a higher dose is a _______ reinforcer
cocaine, less, weaker
32
_____ rewards are generally better reinforcers
bigger
33
the two assumptions made when we say that rewards act as reinforcers
1. learning is an associative process
2. the role of rewards is to strengthen the formation of associations
34
when learning occurs but is not manifest until a reward is introduced
Latent learning
35
Tolmand and Henzik tested hungry rats in a maze, either with or without a _____. Rats that were given rewards ran ______, and rats that were not ran _____, however, they still completed the maze. When the rats without rewards were given rewards, their performance ______ improved with fewer errors in one session, showing latent learning had taken place
rewards, faster, slower, immediately
36
extinction of a previously rewarded response can occur without performance of the response in the absence of reward
latent extinction
37
the anticipation or expectancy of reward arouses a drive state which prompts us to engage in activities that lead to rewards
theory of incentive motivation
38
theories of incentive motivation attempt to capture the way in which objects and events in the world can acquire ______, and drive _______, even in the absence of a clear ______ need
high motivational value, behaviour, biological
39
An experiment with animals responding to either ____ or _____ rewards, then shifting to the opposite reward, show that performance changes to appropriate levels. but are too fast to be explained by _____. Thus, it is likely that bigger rewards result in more _____, rather than better _____
large, small, learning, motivation, learning
40
the enhancement or diminishment, relative to normal, of perception, cognition and related performance as a result of immediately previous or simultaneous exposure to a stimulus of lesser or greater value in the same dimension
contrast effects
41
contrast effects show that it is not just the _____ of rewards that guides behaviour, but the _______ assessment of value
absolute, subjective
42
if shifted from a large to small reward, an animal will respond less for the smaller reward than if it had never been exposed to the large reward
negative contrast effect
43
If shifted from a small to large reward, it will respond more for the larger reward than if it had never been exposed to the small reward
positive contrast effect
44
crespi (1994) showed that animals develop different amounts of _____ ______ ("eagerness") depending on prior experience with rewards
anticipatory excitement
45
the incentive motivational view says that _____ enhances incentive value, rather than energizing behaviour directly. This is shown in Tolman's experiment as only _____ animals show latent learning - if sated, the food has no incentive value
deprivation, hungry
46
hunger makes food a better incentive, thirst, makes water a better incentive, etc. Reflects the palatability of the US
alliesthesia
47
S-R ____ learning relies on _____ memories for the motor program that has been strengthened via associations with the reward. However, behaviour is more sophisticated and______ than this, as ____ memories include representations of the food and of how nice it is
habit, procedural, flexible, declarative
48
how motivated an organism is to work for reward
incentive value
49
fIrst stage in devaluation experiment
1. training in which a lever press results in food for both controls and experimental group
50
second stage in devaluation experiment
2. devaluation in which LiCl is injected into the exp. animals which makes them sick
51
third stage in devaluation experiment
3. first test - animals press lever but nothing results from it for both experimental group and control group - both groups press the lever at the same rate
52
fourth stage in devaluation experiment
4. re-exposure - both groups get exposed to the food again - this ensures that the experimental group knows that the food is what made them sick
53
fifth stage in devaluation experiment
5. second test - both groups are tested under extinction again for lever pressing - experimental group presses lever less than controls
54
the devaluation experiment shows that a ______ change, which takes place during stage _____, does not instantly lead to ______ learning which takes place during stage ____
hedonic, 2, incentive, 4
55
encodes changes in how much animals like the food, can be changed by devaluation/satiation, etc. Changes directly affect consummation of reward; reflects how much the animal likes the reward
hedonic value system
56
How much the animal is willing to work for the reward; to what extent the outcome of the action is a desirable goal; reflects how much the animal wants the reward
instrumental incentive value
57
animals have to learn through ______ that a change in the hedonic value of the food changes its ______ value; in other words, that the food is not worth working for when its not hungry)
experience, incentive
58
a mismatch between hedonic and incentive value can be seen in disorders such as______ and ____-
depression, substance abuse
59
repeated instrumental conditioning reduces the impact of ________, so that there is no room for _____ learning; this is due to the fact that you can change the value of food, but it won't change the S-R response because there is no evaluation of ______
devaluation, incentive, goals
60
to have incentive/hedonic value updating you need exposure to the change in _____ value in the _____ if incentive value
hedonic, context
61
When a classically conditioned stimulus can modulate or enhance instrumental performance
pavlovian to instrumental transfer
62
during _______, presentation of a CS can enhance the operant behaviour because it invokes the memory of the primary reinforcer, even though there is no direct relation between the CS and the _________
Extinction, instrumental action
63
will the conditioned reinforcer determines _______ the animal is willing to work for something, in PIT, the animal is ______ to work for a reward by the _____
how hard, invoked, CS
64
PIT can depend on the ________, for example, if the animal is very hungry there is ____ PIT, and if not there is low _______. This explains why when we go shopping while hungry, there is enhanced invoking of the memory of food with the food packaging, and thus we increase the instrumental behaviour of buying more
motivational state, high, PIT
65
Varying the _______ such. as increasing training sessions so that training becomes _____ controlled, can make PIT insensitive to _______ _________.
instrumental training, S-R, reinforcer devaluation
66
a procedure in which Olds and Milner placed an electrode in the medial forebrain bundle, lateral hypothalamus, and VTA, and allowed mice to press a lever for stimulation in those areas; found that there are high rates of pressing for these "pleasure centres"
intracranial self stimulation
67
VTA which contains the cell bodies of DA cells, project to areas such as the frontal cortex and nucleus accumbens
mesocorticolimbic DA system
68
ICSS causes dramatic increases of DA within the ______, a key site for reward-related learning and addiction
nucleus accumbens
69
DA ______ increase ICSS, while DA ______ and lesions of the ________ DA system _______/____ it
agonists, antagonists, mesocorticolimbic, decrease/disrupt
70
With lesions to the DA system, animals can still find things nice or nasty, but are no longer ______ to earn the reward (no longer _____ directed). This shows that there is a distinction between _____ and ____ motivation
motivated, goal, hedonic, incentive
71
DA neurons fire when an ______ reward occurs, but once a CS-US association is established, DA neurons only fire to the ______. If an expected US does not turn up, DA neurons _____ firing. This shows that DA is a ______ signal for when something nice will turn up in the environment
unexpected, CS, pause, learning
72
DA neurons ramp up their firing after CS presentation if US delivery is ______. The maximal ramping is seen when p(US) = ______ (maximal uncertainty)
uncertain, 0.5
73
continuous, tonic DA is important for ______, while rapid bursts of DA is important for ________
motivation, reward learning
74
Area in the rat brain that is akin to the human DLPFC and involved in planning, response selection, control of purposive actions and knowledge of action-outcome contingencies
Prelimbic cortex
75
In order for actions to be goal directed, animals must understand 2 things:
that their actions result in the outcome, and that the outcome is a goal
76
Frontal cortex is more involved when contingencies are _______ to learn
difficult
77
Contingencies can be ______ by providing a reward regardless of whether an animals makes a response. In control animals, they know which action leads to outcome and _______. Animals with damage to the prelimbic cortex are not ______ and _____ responding to both rewards
degraded, stop responding only to the specific reward, goal-directed, decrease
78
Neurons in this area represent the hedonic value of different rewards
Orbitofrontal cortex
79
Neurons in the OFC show _____ activation to preferred food rewards, and then decrease in activity when this food is _______. Responses to other types of foods are _____
selective, sated, unaffected
80
Damage to any of these areas prevents a change in the value of a reward from affecting response to a CS that predicts that reward (ie. prevents change in hedonic value from affecting incentive motivation)
Basolateral amygdala, OFC
81
The idea that there is an optimal level of arousal for behaviour, in which intermediate levels of arousal are better than very high or very low states
Yerkes-Dodson law/Inverted U function
82
____ or intellectually demanding tasks may require a low level of arousal for optimal performance, while tasks involving ________ or _____ may be performed better with higher levels of arousal (to increase motivation)
difficult, stamina, persistence
83
caffeine impairs performance on _____ tasks, and enhances it on _____ tasks
hard, easy
84
suggests that arousal reduces the range of cues an organism can attend to. Increased activation leads to focusing of attention to central field and less processing in periphery
EasterBrooke hypothesis
85
The EasterBrooke hypothesis predicts that the _____ use of both relevant and irrelevant cues reduces _______, and that ______ cue are eliminated before relevant cues
simultaneous, response efficiency, irrelevant
86
People who were more aroused made more _______ errors than ______ errors, showing that their attention to the _____ was decreased
interword, intraword, periphery
87
recreational activity including art, entertainment, and philosophy, which as no biological function that we can clearly recognize
Ludic behaviour
88
Surprise and incongruity
novelty
89
the amount of information carried by a stimulus; ambiguity
uncertainty
90
multiple responses aroused at the same time
conflict
91
the number of distinguishable elements, dissimilarity of elements
complexity
92
Vitz and Dorfman showed that the ______ ______ changes with expertise, such that high complexity things require _____ exposures to appreciate it
aesthetic appreciation, more
93
_____ and _____ have been associated with elevated drug taking in humans
novelty, sensation seeking
94
Piazza showed that high reactivity to novelty makes rats mores sensitive to _______, such that they produce more baseline movement and have a greater _____ in movement to it
amphetamine, increase
95
When low reactivity and high reactivity rats were repeatedly injected with amphetamine, the differences in the locomotion _______, such that low reactivity rats also increase in movement
decrease
96
Rats with higher reactivity self administer ______ amphetamine than rats with lower reactivity. However, if the rats are _____ to amphetamine, they do not differ in self administration
more, sensitized
97
Drugs of abuse specifically increase DA in the ______ subregion of the nucleus accumbens
shell
98
D1 receptor deficient mice fail to self-administer _____, but continue to self administer for ______ and _____
Cocaine, food, opiates
99
The number of responses required for the outcome to be delivered steadily increases during the session
Progressive ratio of responses
100
The point at which subjects cease responding for 15 minutes, terminating the session. This is quantified as the final ratio - the number of responses in the final completed ratio run of the session
Breakpoint
101
Measure locomotor activity as the mouse explores a novel area
open field
102
drug that blocks the endogenous ligand
antagonist
103
a dopamine antagonist that blocks DA's effects at all receptor subtypes
Cis-flupenthixol
104
Low doses of Cis-flupenthixol can _____ self-administration of cocaine, as the rewarding properties of cocaine ______ when DA receptors are blocked, therefore rats need to take more drug to get the same feeling of reward
increase, decrease
105
If the amount of time that rodents are allowed to self administer increases, you see an increase in the amount taken ______, and _____
per session, per hour
106
increase in the hedonic set point, thought to represent the progressive loss of control over drug associated with drug addiction rather than just recreational drug taking
escalation
