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Biology 207 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is classical genetics and who started it?

A

Gregor mendel in 1865 – the science of solvingg biological questions by examining the offspring of living organisms

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2
Q

What is molecular genetics, how did it start and when?

A

the science of solving biological questions using DNA, RNA and proteins isolated from organisms – began in 1970 with the discovery of restriction enzymes

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3
Q

What are falcon tubes used for?

A

made by falcon for centrifuges

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4
Q

What are epp tubes used for?

A

made by eppendorf for microcentrifuges

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5
Q

What do restriction enzymes do?

A

they’re used by bacteria to cut virus DNA in vivo (inject their chromosome into host cell, takes it over and kills it) or by scientists to cut DNA in vitro

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6
Q

What do restriction enzymes target?

A

4-8 bp sequences

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7
Q

What does endonuclease EcoRI do?

A

it finds the cut site from a restriction enzyme in foreign DNA and cuts it

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8
Q

Whatt does methyltransferase M-EcoRI do?

A

finds the same site as EcoRI and methylates it (protects it)

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9
Q

What is the name of most cut sites?

A

palindromes (same forwards as backwards)

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10
Q

What is the online resource for cut sites?

A

NEB (new england biolabs)

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11
Q

What is electrophoresis?

A

the separation of charged molecules using an electric field

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12
Q

What gel materials are used and when?

A

agarose: dsDNA over 100bp (cheap and edible)
acrylamide: dsDNA under 1 kb and ssDNA (expensive and poisonous)

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13
Q

What are the speeds of linear DNA?

A

short moves fast, long moves slow

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14
Q

How are recombinant chromosomes vs DNA made?

A

CHR: in vivo by crossovers from each parents alleles
DNA: in vitro by geneticists (from 2 organisms)

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15
Q

How do you do gene cloning?

A

you instert DNA into a vector DNA and ligate it to form a recombinant DNA. Then you transform it into a bacterial cell and voila

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16
Q

What is subcloning?

A

moving an insert from one vector to another

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17
Q

Whats the best vector to work with and why?

A

pBluescript because its easy (pEZ BAC is harder to work with)

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18
Q

What is indexing?

A

finds out what DNA is in which clone

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19
Q

What is a BAC clone?

A

bacterial artificial chromosome – an engineered DNA molcule used to clone DNA sequences in bacterial cells (ex. ecoli) (used with DNA sequencing)

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20
Q

What is a cDNA and what does it contain?

A

copy/complementary DNA: only has coding sequences (DNA of genes without introns)
- has no introns
- exons are spliced together for mRNA
- has reverse transcriptase

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21
Q

Where do most reagents, cells, DNA molecules and machines in molecular genetics come from?

A

made and sold by biotech companies

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22
Q

What are oligonucleotides (oligos)?

A
  • synthetic ssDNA
  • 20nt long
  • can bind to complementary ssDNA
  • work as primers for in vitro DNA replication
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23
Q

What is a PCR test?

A

amplifies small segments of DNA (less than 5kb)
- in vitro exponentially
- uses a thermocycler machine

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24
Q

What are the 4 results of a PCR test?

A
  1. original template DNA
  2. some unused dNTPs and primers
  3. some variable length DNA
  4. lots of constant length DNA (only one visible on a gel)
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25
Q

Where do the primers end up on on a PCR test?

A

at the beginning of the 5’ end

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26
Q

When did manual and auto sanger sequencing first come out?

A

1977, then automated in 1986

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27
Q

When did next gen dna sequencing come out?

A

2008 (use this and manual sanger today)

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28
Q

What do ddNTPs do?

A

stop dna replication

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29
Q

Cy3 vs Cy5

A

3: emits greenish yellow light
5: emits red light

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30
Q

What does yellow fluorescence come up as?

A

black ink

31
Q

Where is PCR done?

A

in vitro – presents a chromatogram with about 5kb of data (dsDNA of equal lengths)

32
Q

What does auto sanger do with what?

A

produces 700nt of useful data from ssDNA of unequal lengths

32
Q

What does auto sanger do with what?

A

produces 700nt of useful data from ssDNA of unequal lengths

33
Q

What was the first genome sequences

A

phage phiX174 (took 1 year) – 1977

34
Q

How long would it take to sequence a human?

A

2 days with next gen
- about $1000

35
Q

How many encoding genes do humans have?

A

about 20K
- most noncoding

36
Q

What is metagenomics?

A

the sequencing of all DNA from an environment to find out which species are present

37
Q

When were human genomes first sequenced?

A

in the 1990s

38
Q

What did Barbara mcclintock do?

A
  • discovered transposable elements
  • proved that meiotic crossovers involved dsDNA breaks
39
Q

What are TEs?

A

genes that can move to a new location through insertion
- found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
- make one unique protein, most steps are done by host proteins
- these insertions can disrupt genes (mutates and can render non functional)
- rare in humans, common in pea plants and fruit flies (1/2 in FF are due to TEs)
- 45% in human chromosomes
- found in introns and the space between genes
- can be polymorphic

40
Q

What are 5 ways to make a crop plant?

A
  1. hybridization
  2. spontaneous mutations and artificial selection
  3. induced mutations and artificial selection
  4. transgenic plants
  5. targeted mutations with CRISPR
41
Q

How and why is transgenic insulin and factor 8 blood clotting factor made?

A

to treat hemophilia A

42
Q

What did golden rice do?

A

treats vitamin A deficient children and pregnant women mostly in africa and india

43
Q

What is a genetic cross?

A

an experiment in which males and females of a model organism are mated to produce offspring

44
Q

What is a reciprocal cross?

A

genetic crosses in which males of genotype A are crossed to females of genotype B and vice versa

45
Q

What 3 things make a good model?

A
  1. simple
  2. explains most if not all of the data
  3. testable
46
Q

If the results aren’t the same on crosses of 2 strains from a reciprocal cross, what does this indicate?

A

that the gene is on a sex chromosome

47
Q

What is the multiplication rule?

A

the probability that 2 events both occur is equal to the probability that one event occurs times the probability that the other event occurs
(probability x probability)

48
Q

What is the addition rule?

A

the probability that either of 2 events occur is = to the probability that one event occurs plus the probability that the other event occurs (probability + probability)

49
Q

What is the subtraction rule?

A

either something will happen or it won’t (probability occurring + probability doesn’t occur = 1)

50
Q

What is gamblers fallacy?

A

that past events influence future possibilities (more/less likely an event will occur)

51
Q

What is pleiotropy?

A

when one gene influences several phenotypic traits

52
Q

What is codominance?

A

VERY RARE - when heterozygotes show the phenotypes of both homozygotes (ex. roan cattle)

53
Q

What are the 3 antigens?

A

a, b, h

54
Q

What combo makes A?

A

a and h

55
Q

What combo makes B?

A

b and h

56
Q

What combo makes AB?

A

a, b, h

57
Q

What combo makes O?

A

h

58
Q

Who can donate to A?

A

a or o

59
Q

Who can donate to B?

A

b or o

60
Q

Who can donate to AB?

A

ab, a, b or o

61
Q

Who can donate to O?

A

o

62
Q

What is a test cross?

A

Breeding of the dominant phenotype with the homozygous recessive phenotype (parent)

63
Q

What is a self cross?

A

The process of fusion of male and female gametes of the same organism

64
Q

What is an intercross?

A

A mating between two members of the F1 generation or between two animals that are heterozygous at the same locus

65
Q

Who proved that genes were on chromosomes?

A

thomas morgans lab

66
Q

Who figured out how genes fit onto chromosomes?

A

alfred sturtevant

67
Q

Where can genes be located?

A

autosomal: on an autosome
sex-linked: on an X or Z chromosome

68
Q

What happens if RF is below or above 50%

A

below: genes are linked and on same chromosome
above: genes are not linked and are far apart on the same or different chromosomes

69
Q

RF won’t go above what?

A

50% (but could be more mu’s than that)

70
Q

What is the old and new method for mapping genes?

A

old: RFLP
new: GWAS

71
Q

What does GWAS do?

A

maps genes responsible for. phenotype to 700,000 SNPs in a single step
- analyzes it with a DNA microarray reader
- graphs the probability that the mutation is less than 10mu from each SNP (when it peaks = close to the gene of interest)
- can have one peak or multiple
- can work with just about any organism, model or not

72
Q

What are GWAS graphs called?

A

manhattan plots

Biology 207 (3 decks)

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