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Biology 207 > MIDTERM 1 > Flashcards

MIDTERM 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle?

A

G1, S, G2, mitotic phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)

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2
Q

What does mitosis do?

A

it generates new cells for growth and repair (makes identical daughter cells)

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3
Q

What is cohesion and what is it composed of?

A

it holds sister chromatids together (is put on DNA before replication) – composed of 3 heterotrimer rings (polypeptides)

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4
Q

When Cohesin rings are broken, what occurs?

A

anaphase

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5
Q

How many chromosomes are in a gamete?

A

n=23

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6
Q

What is a genome?

A

all of the genes in a haploid cell

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7
Q

What # changes during a cell cycle, chromosomes or DNA?

A

DNA – chromosome #s don’t change

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8
Q

Mitosis vs fertilization vs meiosis

A

mitosis: 2n = 2n + 2n
fertilization: n + n = 2n
meiosis: 2n = n + n + n + n

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9
Q

What does fertilization do?

A

joins 2 haploid cells into a diploid cell

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10
Q

What does meiosis do?

A

to make haploid cells from a diploid cell

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11
Q

Protected vs unprotected cohesins

A

pro: holds sister chromatids together
unpro: holds homologous chromosomes together

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12
Q

Anaphase 1 vs2

A

1: unprotected cohesins separate chromosomes (l to X)
2: protected cohesins separate into sister chromatics (X to l l)

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13
Q

When do homologous chromosomes separate into sister chromatids?

A

going from meiosis 1 to 2

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14
Q

What is spermatogenesis?

A

meiosis in males

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15
Q

What is oogenesis?

A

meiosis in females

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16
Q

What is gametogenesis?

A

meiosis when products are gametes

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17
Q

How do haploid cells become motile in spermatogenesis?

A

by growing flagella

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18
Q

When do cells begin entering meiosis for spermatogenesis and how long does the process take?

A

at puberty, taking about 2 months (60 days)

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19
Q

What is special about oogenesis?

A

it makes a single large haploid cell rather than 4 little ones, the discarded ones being polar bodies

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20
Q

What occurs during oogenesis?

A

the cells start meiosis in the fetus and pause in prophase 1
- next, once a month (beginning at puberty), one or two cells resume and enter the oviduct where they would be allowed to be fertilized

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21
Q

How many c (chromosomes) do the sperm and egg have?

A

23 each
- egg has a cytoplasm with mitochondria

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22
Q

When do genes turn on?

A

in the 4 cell stage (called zygotic genome activation)

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23
Q

What do the inner cells of the blastocyst become?

A

embryo

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24
Q

What do the outer cells of the blastocyst become?

A

the membrane/placenta

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25
Q

What does dizygotic mean?

A

non identical twins – independent membranes and placentas in the uterus

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26
Q

What does monozygotic mean?

A

identical twins – same membranes and placentas in the uterus

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27
Q

How are identical/monozygotic twins created?

A

by splitting at the 2 cell stage

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28
Q

What does amniotic fluid contain?

A

embryonic cells (amniocentesis)

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29
Q

What are the sexes for yeasts?

A

they have mating types (a and alpha)

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30
Q

How does yeast get from n to 2n?

A

normally its through fertilization but with yeasts its through cell fusion

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31
Q

What are the sexes for yeasts?

A

they have mating types (a and alpha) n =16

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32
Q

What are corns gametes?

A

pollen and eggs

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33
Q

How do corn pollinate?

A

they cross pollinate

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34
Q

How do corn pollinate?

A

they cross pollinate (through wind)

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35
Q

When does budding occur?

A

during mitosis when cytokinesis is unequal

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36
Q

What are the nucleic acid rules?

A
  1. its made using triphosphate nucleotides
  2. made 5’ to 3’ (direction of synthesis)
  3. made using a ssDNA template
  4. pair antiparallel
  5. pair with complementary base pairing (atu and cg)
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37
Q

What happens when an ori fires?

A

2 replication forks leave at different directions around the circle

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38
Q

What are telomeres?

A

sacrificial pieces of DNA that are the end parts

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39
Q

How are telomeres made?

A

with telomerase (composed of protein and RNA – not DNA)
- RNA dependent DNA polymerases

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40
Q

What creates a nucleosome?

A

DNA + Histone proteins
- irregular 30nm fibre

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41
Q

What is condensin?

A

large protein complexes that play a central role in chromosome assembly and segregation during mitosis and meiosis
- hold DNA loops
- similar to cohesins but these hold sister chromatids

42
Q

What are metaphase chromosomes made of (x4)?

A
  1. DNA
  2. histone proteins
  3. cohesin proteins
  4. condensin proteins
43
Q

What does metacentric mean?

A

centromere is located in the middle of the chromosome

44
Q

What does acrocentric mean?

A

centromere is located towards one side of the chromosome

45
Q

What does telocentric mean?

A

centromere is located towards one end of the chromosome

46
Q

How many pairs of autosomes vs sex chromosome does a human have?

A

22 pairs auto, 1 pair sex

47
Q

What “centric” are human chromosomes NOT?

A

telocentric (one side all the way)

48
Q

How do you prepare chromosomes to be seen?

A
  1. isolate blood
  2. add WBC growth factor (increases WBC and you leave it for 3 days)
  3. add microtubule inhibitor (culture for 1 day – chromosomes end up in mitosis)
  4. drop cells onto a slide
  5. add giemsa stain (causes a metaphase spread and makes cells purple)
  6. take a photo and arrange the chromosomes into standard pattern (on a KARYOGRAM)
  7. describe the results using the book called ISCN
49
Q

How would you write out a karyotype?

A

chromosomes, sex chromosome, abnormalities

ex. 46,XY,+21 (an added chromosome at spot 21)

50
Q

What are the 2 types of chromosome arms?

A

p arm (small) and q arm (tail)

51
Q

What are each region on a metaphase map called (chromosome)?

A

a band – dark and light purple

52
Q

What is the middle of a band called?

A

a centimere

53
Q

Where are regions located on a band?

A

from centimere to the end (p and q arm regions)

54
Q

What is the order for naming bands?

A

chromosome:arm:region:band:sub-band

55
Q

What are the 4 types of chromosome structure changes?

A

deletion, duplication, inversion and translocation (del, dup, inv, t)

56
Q

What is a gene?

A

a DNA region responsible for the production of an RNA molecule (mRNA, RNA, etc.)
- work pretty much the same way in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

57
Q

What is a promoter?

A

located on a gene, where the RNA pol attaches

58
Q

What are regulatory regions?

A

places where transcription factor proteins attach on a gene
- the regions of a gene where RNA polymerase and other accessory transcription modulator proteins bind and interact to control RNA synthesis
- 10-20bp long
- where the protein can bind

59
Q

What are transcription factors?

A

positive and negative (ly affect gene activity) – bind to double stranded DNA
- proteins involved in the process of converting or transcribing DNA into RNA
- attached to the regulatory region
- bind with an amino acid - base hydrogen bonds
- bind instead of open as it takes too much time and E
- bind to several bp to increase specificity and strength

60
Q

What is an environmental gene expression?

A

when a gene is on only certain environments (controlled by them)

61
Q

What are alleles?

A

different forms of a gene (a+/A OR a-/a)

62
Q

What is spatial gene expression?

A

when a gene is on in only some cells

63
Q

What is temporal gene expression?

A

when a gene is on in only some developmental stages

64
Q

What is a genotype?

A

all the genes and alleles present in a cell/organism

65
Q

Homozygote vs heterozygote

A

homo: with identical alleles of a gene of interest (A/A and a/a)
hetero: with different alleles of a gene of interest (A/a)
doesn’t matter if in G1 or G2, treat the same

66
Q

What are the characteristics of homologous chromosomes?

A

same: length, centromere position, bands and genes
different: alleles

67
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

the physical characteristics of a cell/organism
=genotype + environment

68
Q

What is an important detail about hetero chrom?

A

the dominant allele conceals the recessive allele

69
Q

What is uncertainty (genes)?

A

if a cell has a dominant phenotype but we don’t know if its A/A or A/a (written as A/_)

70
Q

What does a / vs ; mean in nomenclature?

A

/ = homologous chromosome
; = different chromosome

71
Q

Parental vs recombinant

A

parental: same as what we started with, the parents
recombinant: new combo from the parents of alleles

72
Q

What is the function of a meiotic crossover?

A

to hold homologous chromosomes together during meiosis 1
- minor function is to produce recombinant offspring

73
Q

Crossovers can happen between what?

A

any 2 non sister chromatids

74
Q

What are some examples of minimal media?

A

carbon or energy source or salts

75
Q

What are some examples of complete media?

A

AA, sugars, lipids, nucleotides, etc.

76
Q

What is a prototroph?

A

wild source, genes are all functional and can grow on both CM and MM

77
Q

What is an auxotroph?

A

lab source, one gene is a mutant and they only grow on CM

78
Q

What is a transfection?

A

same thing as transformation but in animals (the uptake and use of DNA or RNA by a cell/organism)

79
Q

What is ethyl methanesulphonate (EMS)?

A

it sticks to G and reacts with damages – can resemble an A (GC to AT bp sub)
- used to deliberately cause mutations

80
Q

What is ethyl methanesulphonate (EMS)?

A

it sticks to G and reacts with damages – can resemble an A (GC to AT bp sub)
- used to deliberately cause mutations

81
Q

What is NHEJ?

A

bind and sticks to the ends of chromosomes when broken due to gamma or x-rays (telomeres on other ends so they know which sides to put back together - shield them)

82
Q

How do mutagens relate to mutations?

A

directly related – mutagen (an agent such as radiation or a chemical substance) makes a lesion which causees dna replication/dna repair to turn it into a mutation (causes genetic mutations)

83
Q

forwards vs reverse mutations

A

forward: wild type to mutant
reverse: mutant to wild type

84
Q

What are hypomorphic mutations?

A

affects the protein but not really, decreases the amount or activity of the protein (some)

85
Q

What are amorphic mutations?

A

causes the protein to be absent or nonfunctional

86
Q

What are genes named by?

A

by mutant phenotype or protein

87
Q

What are alleles named by?

A

by discovery or phenotype

88
Q

What is the search tool called for genes and genetic phenotypes?

A

OMIM online mendelian inheritance in man

89
Q

How many pseudogenes do humans have?

A

about 12,000

90
Q

What are neutral muitations?

A

when the protein is unaffected (doesn’t matter as much)

91
Q

What are germline mutations?

A

a gene change in a reproductive cell (egg/sperm) that affects the DNA of every cell in the body of the offspring

92
Q

What are somatic mutations?

A

an alteration in DNA that occurs after conception (anywhere except germ cells – don’t affect children)

93
Q

What are inherited mutations?

A

when a gene mutation is carried in the egg or sperm and is passed onto the child (hereditary)

94
Q

What does forensics help find?

A

DNA differences within a species

95
Q

What is an operon?

A

a DNA region responsible for making an mRNA with more than one protein coding region

96
Q

What type of mutations does EMS generate?

A

missense and nonsense

97
Q

What are induced random mutations?

A

when you expose many organisms to a mutagen to generate random mutations and then isolate the rare offspring with the desired mutant phenotype

98
Q

What are targeted mutaaations?

A

when you replace the wild type allele of a known gene with a mutant allele (can be done with CRISPR)

99
Q

What are promoters?

A

a region of DNA upstream of a gene where relevant proteins such as RNA polymerase and transcription factors bind to initiate transcription of that gene (produces an RNA molecule)

100
Q

What is mRNA?

A

a type of single stranded RNA involved in protein synthesis – made from DNA during transcription – carries protein information

Biology 207 (3 decks)

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