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Human Anatomy > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Examples of excitatory neurotransmitters

A

glutamate, aspartate, acetylcholine

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2
Q

Examples of inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

GABA, glycine

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3
Q

Which neurotransmitters can exert excitatory and inhibitory effects?

A

dopamine. serotonin

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4
Q

What do excitatory neurotransmitters do?

A

lower the postsynaptic membrane potential to increase firing rate (EPSP)

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5
Q

What do inhibitory neurotransmitters do?

A

stabilize or raise the postsynaptic potential to decrease firing rate (IPSP)

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6
Q

agonist neuromodulator

A

mimics action of neurotransmitter by binding to receptor

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7
Q

antagonist neuromodulator

A

blocks action of neurotransmitter by binding to receptor

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8
Q

facilitation neuromodulator

A

enhances effect of neurotransmitter by its increased concentration in the synaptic cleft, slower degradation, or slower reuptake resulting in greater response in the postsynaptic cell

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9
Q

inhibition neuromodulator

A

reduces effect of neurotransmitter by its decreased concentration in the synaptic cleft, faster degradation, or faster reuptake resulting in a lesser response in the postsynaptic cell

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10
Q

neuromodulation

A

release of chemicals from cells that alter or regulate the response of neurons to neurotransmitters

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11
Q

neuromodulator function

A

molecules can have enabling or disabling effect on the response to the neurotransmitter by binding allosterically to the postsynaptic receptor

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12
Q

what are the two types of postsynaptic receptors that neurotransmitters bind to?

A

ionotropic (ion channels)
metabotropic

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13
Q

main classes of neurotransmitters

A

acetylcholine (Ach)
biogenic amines (catecholamines, indolamines)
amino acids
neuropeptides

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14
Q

what are catecholamines synthesized from?

A

tyrosine

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15
Q

what are indolamines synthesized from?

A

histidine (ex. histidine) or tryptophan (ex. serotonin)

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16
Q

ionotropic receptors

A

ligand-gated transmembrane ion channels that can open in response to a binding molecule

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17
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

non-channel transmembrane proteins where a series of events may open another ion channel or activate other molecules within the cell

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18
Q

nicotinic receptors are

A

ionotropic, excitatory

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19
Q

where are nicotinic receptors found

A

-somatic effector (skeletal muscle) at neuromuscular junctions in the somatic nervous system
-postganglionic neurons at their synapse with preganglionic neurons in the autonomic ganglia of the ANS
-spinal cord of CNS

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20
Q

muscarinic receptors are

A

metabotropic, either excitatory or inhibitory

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21
Q

muscarinic receptors are found in

A

-remainder of CNS (brain)
-autonomic effector (cardiac and smooth muscle, glands w cholinergic innervation) at its synapse with the postganglionic neuron in the ANS

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22
Q

what is Alzheimer’s disease associated with

A

degeneration of cholinergic neurons
-decreased amount of Ach
-loss of postsynaptic neurons that would have responded to it

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23
Q

monoamine oxidase (MAO) function

A

enzyme that degrades catecholamines

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24
Q

adrenergic receptor types

A

alpha adrenergic receptors (usually excitatory)
beta adrenergic receptors (usually inhibitory)

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25
Q

adrenergic receptors

A

G protein coupled receptors that are generally linked to a second messenger signal transduction pathway

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26
Q

what second messenger is associated with alpha adrenergic receptors

A

alpha1- Ca2+ ions
alpha2- cAMP

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27
Q

what second messenger is associated with beta adrenergic receptors

A

cAMP

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28
Q

effects of beta adrenergic receptor subclasses

A

beta1- activation increases heart rate and contractility
beta2- relaxes smooth muscle in lung bronchioles to allow more oxygen intake during exercise

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29
Q

sympathetic preganglionic fibers

A

always cholinergic

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30
Q

sympathetic postganglionic fibers

A

mostly adrenergic, a few cholinergic

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31
Q

parasympathetic preganglionic fibers

A

always cholinergic

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32
Q

parasympathetic postganglionic fibers

A

always cholinergic

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33
Q

where are indolamines found?

A

brain and spinal cord (CNS)

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34
Q

serotonin effects (inhibitory? excitatory?)

A

excitatory effect on muscle control and inhibitory effect on pathways that mediate sensation

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35
Q

when are serotonin levels lowest and highest?

A

lowest- sleep
highest- alertness

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35
Q

when are serotonin levels lowest and highest?

A

lowest- sleep
highest- alertness

36
Q

serotonin function

A

regulating sleep, emotions, vomiting reflex, regulates cell growth, vascular smooth muscle cell contraction

37
Q

Parkinson’s disease brain involvement

A

loss of dopamine-releasing neurons in the substantia nigra of the midbrain

38
Q

Parkinson’s symptoms

A

persistent tremors, head nodding and pill rolling behaviors, forward bent walking posture, shuffling gait, stiff facial expressions, slow initiation and execution of movement

39
Q

which neurotransmitter type is the most abundant?

A

amino acid

40
Q

most common inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

GABA- dampens neural activity in the brain

41
Q

Tissues

A

groups of cells and the surrounding external that serve a common function

42
Q

3 primary germ layers

A

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

43
Q

Hypertrophy

A

increase in cell size while the number of cells within the tissue remain constant

44
Q

hyperplasia

A

increase in the number of cells in a tissue

45
Q

atrophy

A

reduction in cell size and/or the number of cells in a tissue

46
Q

necrosis

A

refers to dead tissue and described as “necrotic” clinically

47
Q

metaplasia

A

tissues that transform into another tissue type

48
Q

dyplasia

A

abnormal tissue development, may eventually form a tumor or return to normal tissue

49
Q

neoplasm

A

tumor
can be non-cancerous and localized (benign) or cancerous and invasive (malignant)

50
Q

metastatic

A

malignant neoplasms that have spread to other parts of the body

51
Q

components of H & E stains

A

hematoxylin and eosin

52
Q

hematoxylin

A

basic stain that stains acidic/basophilic structures blue/purple
ex) nuclei, ribosome, DNA, rER

53
Q

eosin

A

acidic stain that stains basic/acidophilic structures pink
ex) collagen fibers, cytoskeleton

54
Q

functions of epithelial tissues

A

barrier/protection
absorption of nutrients/fluids
transport across epithelial layers
secretion of hormones, enzymes, mucous

55
Q

function of microvilli

A

increase surface area, allowing for more absorption

56
Q

where are cilia found?

A

respiratory tract, female reproductive tract

57
Q

corneal endothelium shape

A

hexagonal to maximize surface area

58
Q

how many layers does corneal endothelium have

A

single layer of flattened cells

59
Q

simple cuboidal epithelium morphology

A

singly layer, polygon-shaped

60
Q

simple cuboidal epithelium function

A

secretion, absorption

61
Q

where is simple cuboidal epithelium found?

A

kidney tubules, serves as the secretory unit of exocrine glands

62
Q

simple columnar epithelium morphology

A

single layer, rectangular, nuclei often aligned basally

63
Q

simple columnar epithelium function

A

absorption, secretion

64
Q

simple columnar epithelium is found in

A

intestines (small, colon)
stomach

65
Q

simple columnar epithelium with cilia found in

A

female reprodcutive tract, bronchi and bronchioles

66
Q

stratified squamous epithelium morphology

A

flattened superficial cells
+/- keratinization
basal layers mitotically active, cells migrate towards the surface

67
Q

stratified squamous epithelium function

A

protection, secretion

68
Q

stratified squamous epithelium found in

A

mouth, esophagus, cornea, vagina (SSNK), epidermis (SSK)

69
Q

stratified cuboidal epithelium function

A

absoption, secretion

70
Q

stratified cuboidal epithelium found in

A

internal walls of the gland ducts

71
Q

pseudostratified columnar epithelium morphology

A

-pseudo-multilayered, columnar shaped
-nuclei not aligned
-typically ciliated

72
Q

pseudostratified columnar epithelium function

A

conduction, protetion, secretion

73
Q

pseudostratified columnar epithelium found in

A

respiratory tract (“respiratory epithelium”)- trachea, bronchi

74
Q

goblet cell morphology

A

modified columnsar epithelial cells, unicellular

75
Q

goblet cell function

A

synthesize and secrete mucous that serves as a first line barrier of the immune system

76
Q

goblet cells found in

A

scattered throughout many epithelial tissue linings
-respiratory tract
-ocular conjunctiva
-digestive tract

77
Q

transitional epithelium morphology

A

stratified; cuboidal (non-distended) to squamous (distended)

78
Q

transitional epithelium function

A

protection, distention

79
Q

transitional epithelium found in

A

urinary tract (urinary epithelium)

80
Q

exocrine glands type of secretion

A

mucous, serous (tears), seromucous (mucoid), sebaceous (meibum), sudoriferous (sweat)

81
Q

merocrine (eccrine) secretion

A

-most common
-involves exocytosis (vesicles) as only secretory component released from glandular cells
-primarily protein products

82
Q

apocrine secretion

A

membrane bound vesicles (apical)
primarily lipid-based products

83
Q

apocrine secretion found in

A

breast and some sweat glands
used for thermoregulation, sexual attractant

84
Q

types of growth in hyaline cartilage

A

interstitial growth, appositional growth

85
Q

interstitial growth

A

from center, height

86
Q

appositional growth

A

from edge, width
primary mechanism of cartilage growth

87
Q

compact (cortical) bone

A

dense with organic ground substance and inorganic salts that also contain lacunae

88
Q

cancellous bone

A

spongy; less dense and more porous
contains bone marrow

Human Anatomy (3 decks)

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