Midterm Flashcards

Question

doctrine of effective occupation

Answer 1

Colonies had to be profitable and colonizer had to be able to assert full territorial control Needed to make way for a different colonial power to not block opportunity for someone else to make profit

Answer 2

capability to deliver domestic security and welfare

Answer 3

limited to non-interference in their domestic (keeps in power predatory leaders) This non-interference is enforced by international norms This has protected authoritarian African elites, propagating weak, corrupt, even chaotic states “unworthy” of sovereignty

Answer 4

He does not argue that predatory leaders are good, he says that it does not happen by accident, it is a feature build into the international system of states They gave small european countries like Belgium and Switzerland artificial roles in international affairs out of proportion with their size, power, and domestic resources

Answer 5

Was not done on behalf of belgian state but personal control of Leopold himself Resources went to the pocket of the King and not the Belgian treasury

Answer 6

Imposed a brutal regime of forced labor, no where more brutal than Congo Had to bring a X amount of wealth to posts set up by Belgian authorities, if not satisfied Congolese were killed or hands were cut off Scandal because of the extend of the human rights abused

Answer 7

first dictator of Congo recruited by Belgian secret services and US CIA Overthrown in 1997 with the Congolese civil war

Answer 8

Protected by norms of international sovereignty Governed because of the support from Western Powers Kept him in place because they had unlimited access to Congo mineral wealth Served as spring board for military projects, using bases in Congo Western powers sent in own military to crush anti-Mobutu rebellions to keep him in power, corruption Belgians, French and Americans are the “foreign powers” mentioned Ruled via nepotism and cronyism; stacked the state with ethnic kin

Answer 9

Understanding sovereignty in the context of Africa and the African diaspora

Answer 10

Born in Jamaica in 1887 Came to NY in 1916 and founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) The message of black nationalism, black self-identity, black self-reliance in the economic context

Answer 11

"We are going to emancipate ourselves from mental slavery because whilst others might free the body, none but ourselves can free the mind”

Answer 12

Members of the same ethnicities and regions enslaved one another, causing fear and ethnic fractionalization “Insecurity confined people within ethnic boundaries constructing spheres of interaction” (Kusimba cited in Nunn) Complex state systems (ex: Joloff Confederation in Senegambia) disintegrated Entire communities degenerated into predatory societies Pressures of slavery pitting people against each other Warlords and slave raiders became the new leaders, altering previously existing institutions to facilitate their needs

Answer 13

Kidnapping of people for slave trade undermined social order, royal authority Hard for the royals to keep control, and they could not protect their own subjects King of Kongo pleaded with Portugal Slavers “bring ruin to the country” (letter from the king to Portugal) Slave trade was a key factor in weakening and eventually bringing down the kingdom Pre-colonial African political units were often similarly weakened or dissolved

Answer 14

found that the most developed societies pre-slavery were the ones hardest hit by the slave trade Because the preexisting infrastructure made slave raiding that much easier Communities linked by different trade patterns and roads, high profile regionally in terms of level of prosperity The easiest ones for the slave raiders to hit

Answer 15

Key Dependency Theorist 1943: Guyana Studied in the UK and Jamaica; taught in Tanzania 1972: wrote landmark book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa; emerged as key dependency theorist 1974: returned to Guyana to teach and engage in politics 1979: arrested for arson, then released for lack of evidence 1980: assassinated by car bomb as he prepared to run for office

Answer 16

Theory that Western Europe and America's great wealth arose from the exploitation of the Global South The underdevelopment of countries in the global south is directly linked to the fact that they were condemned to the periphery of the global economy

Answer 17

Expatriation of surplus Brought back to metropole instead of helping the African countries Trading companies profiting from peasant cash crop farming Deteriorating terms of trade Because the rich are getting richer, outstrips the growth of the economy within the economy No access to financial institutions No banking available Taxation of African labor and dwellings To extract as much revenue as possible

Answer 18

The Asante (Ashanti) Kingdom of modern-day Ghana coalesced from among various ethnic Akan groups Under the leadership of King Osei Tutu (born 1645), Asante unified, and organized an army to defend against neighboring states Asante stopped paying tribute to neighboring states This means they gained enough power to do that King Osei Tutu consolidated control over the gold fields throughout the Akan lands Introduced new traditions and ceremonies to promote unified identity

Answer 19

Osei Tutu conquered neighboring lands incorporated their economies Imposed a centralized taxation system Raised an army by implementing a draft system on populations under his control Kingdom engaged in the trans-Atlantic slave trade, selling prisoners of war to Europeans Built considerable national wealth War made the state and the state made war example here

Answer 20

Europeans coming into contact with Ashanti regarded it as a nation-state It had “a given territory, known territorial limits, a central gov with police and army, a national language and law” and a form of constitution and parliament Strength also lay in its gov’s legitimacy among citizens Like its European counterparts, it went to war with neighbors and subdued them, obliged them to pay tribute and otherwise bullied them” (Davidson 1996) Controlled the entire territory of modern-day Ghana by 1750 Golden stool, the embodiment of Ashanti nationhood

Answer 21

Ashanti repulsed British attempts at conquest in early to mid 19th century In its invasion of 1874 Britain demonstrated its military superiority, occupying the capital of Kumasi Second city in Ghana today Once slave raiding ended in West Africa, African trading companies seemed posed to prosper- they could have formed a stable African middle class In 1895, the Ashanti Kingdom offered Queen Victoria a huge commercial concession, sending diplomats to London to offer the British rights similar to those enjoyed by the British South Africa Company We are going to give UK commercial advantage if you leave us intact, a subsidy to UK They retain sovereignty and ongoing wealth, the UK will become even wealthier through this arrangement

Answer 22

Ashanti offered Britain the benefits of economic control while sparing them the cost of military conquest But the British wanted monopolist commercial control and territorial ownership The Brtiish sent more troops to invade Ashanti and occupied it permanently in 1901 as a protectorate attached to the Gold Coast Colony Davidson wants to show how the UK did not want a win-win dynamic

Answer 23

The cost of occupation were borned by the native population Africans would pay for the military costs “Everyplace that wealth could be extracted by commercial means fell within the scope of European companies, mostly British, based along the coast” (Davidson 1996, 71) For African political and structural development, these were wasted years African states had to then start from scratch

Answer 24

first settled in the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa) in 1652 The British established a toehold in the Cape Colony in 1795, displacing the Dutch settlers (Boers), who moved further inland British settlers arrived in waves, starting in 1820 (Port Elizabeth); enslaving Africans was abolished in 1833; Africans were granted certain rights Practices of forced labor would continue well into the 20th century Africans got certain rights that were then widdled away as the economic value of colonizing South Africa became more eminent, with the discovery of SA’s mineral wealth

Answer 25

Emigrated from UK to SA at 17 Founded the De Beers diamond company and made a fortune Founded the British SA company PM of British Cape Colony, 1890-96 Wanted to build a “Cape to Cairo” railway Regarded Africans as “savages,” inferior

Answer 26

King of Zimbabwe 1888: duped by British mining magnates into signing a treaty allowing concessions on his land It soon become clear that they meant to colonize Displace the people

Answer 27

Shona and Ndebele at first welcomed European settlers Ndebele King Lobengula: “Don’t be afraid of them, as they are only traders, but take a black cow to them and greet them.” But settlers soon imposed hut tax, forced labor, forced relocation

Answer 28

Europeans found little mineral wealth, so they took African land and cattle instead First conflict: Ndebele War of 1893 Ndebele started a broader revolt in March 1896; Shona joined in June Two tribes that lived there Colonizers had a machine gun

Answer 29

She preached the gospel of resistance throughout Mashonaland, encouraging people to join the chimurenga

Answer 30

where the Zimbabwe natives were forced to relocate ‘6500 square miles of waterless and infertile land, which the Ndebele regarded as cemeteries and not homes’ (Phimister, 1988) By 1898, an estimated 38% of Ndebele had been forced into reserves Relocation onto reserves would later become a key counterinsurgency strategy

Answer 31

Unity of Africa, borders dividing the countries were drawn artificially and should be dissolved, transnational unity within independent Africa

Answer 32

End of WWII saw creation of UN, Universal Declaration of Human Rights Decline of colonialism in Africa and Asia In Cold War context, US wanted to appeal to newly-independent countries; to “Save the Third World for democracy” The US stood for those ideal, soviets did not (Cold War era) But: racism in US made African states doubtful (Dudziak) Soviets took advantage US international image mattered so it placed more emphasis on the civil rights movement

Answer 33

Colonized by Leopold II in 1885 Huge profits during rubber boom Congo also has huge deposits of diamonds, uranium, copper, cobalt, zinc, radium, cadmium, germanium, manganese, silver, gold, and tin Belgians enforced slave labour Around 2m congolese perished between 1885-1908 Congolese mining companies constituted a “state within a state”

Answer 34

1952-61 Helped to found National Congolese Movement (MNC) in 1958 Lumumba became a staunch pan-Africanist, believed in international African solidarity Visited Kwame Nkrumah’s 1958 pan-African conference in Ghana where his consciousness was formed and strengthened

Answer 35

1960: Congolese elected him as PM L wanted to nationalize Congolese resources: his priority was “creating a national economy and ensuring our economic independence” He was widely demonized by western media, “part of the necessary psychological preparation for a major coup in the Congo” (Nzongola-Ntalaja, p.117)

Answer 36

30 June 1960: congo gains formal independence 5 july: black troops chafing udner white officers stage a mutiny Riots break out between black and white civilians 10 July: Belgium sends in troops to evacuate 100,000 whites (mostly Belgian nationals -0.9% of Belgians lived in Congo in 1959) 11 July: with Belgian support, two mineral-rich southern provinces, Katanga and South Kasai, break away Belgium disarmed and expelled all non-Katangese soldiers; kept the Katangese to form Katanga Gendarmerie

Answer 37

province detached from Congo, leader was Moise Tshombé Belgian corporation Union Minière du Haut Katanga (UMHK) paid for Tshombé’s security forces, composed of Western mercenaries These included Americans, Belgians, French, British, South Africans, Rhodesians, and German ex-Nazis

Answer 38

PM L wanted to retake breakaway provinces; sought help from UN peacekeeping troops in Congo UN Secretary General Hammarskjöld refused L then turned to Soviets; Khrushchev sent planes to ferry Congolese troops West now regarded L as a Soviet stooge whose elimination became a top priority They did not sent their own troops but transport planes instead Made a mistake by openly siding with the Sovietsa L had naively appointed Joseph Mobutu as Colonel and Cheif-of-Staff of Congolese Army, ignoring reports that he was a spy Mobutu was then the dictator, longest serving and notorious dictators of 20th century

Answer 39

The new Congolese government divided over the Soviet involvement; Kasavubu, a darling of the West, opposed it Supported by the West, Kasavubu illegally dismissed Lumumba as PM Congolese Army Col. Joseph Désiré Mobutu, a Belgian agent who had also been recruited by the CIA, staged a coup and seized power, expelling Soviets Has ties for both Belgian Secret Services and the CIA

Answer 40

Many Lumumba loyalists in Congelese army; CIA worried they’d reinstall him Lumumba was captured, escaped, was recaptured by Mobutu’s forces, flown to Katanga, and murdered by the Belgians Lumumba supporters led by Antoine Gizenga established the Free Republic of Congo in the east, but were defeated by Western mercenaries Tshombe enabled Western actors to put an African face on their neo-colonial venture No longer direct western subjugation of Congo, but Tshombe was suppose to serve African interest, he obviously did not L captured in Leopoldville, Dec. 1960

Answer 41

Belgians, US decided to assassinate him; several failed attempts before they succeeded; CIA had flown in poisoned toothpaste to kill L In August 1960, Eisenhower told CIA chief Allen Dulles: “eliminate him” CIA apparently wanted to kill L before JFK’s inauguration three days later (Kalb, The Congo Cables)

Answer 42

Would Congo have become a Soviet client state? (Paul Landau) Lumumba, like Ho Chi Minh of Vietnam, Agostinho Neto of Angola, had first sought to cultivate positive ties with West, but was rejected During his tour of the United States in July-Aug. 1960, US administration ignored Lumumba, pushing him to Soviets Could Congo have united and avoided cycles of war and impoverishment? Maybe not, but killing Lumumba virtually guaranteed a chaotic future path “Lumumba died for attempting to uphold the constitutional order, national unity, and territorial integrity” of Congo (Nzongola Ntalaja, p.116)

Answer 43

Nzongola-Ntalaja distinguishes between radical and moderate nationalists in Congolese political history The radicals espoused pan-Africanist ideals and the Bandung principles of nonalignment, and were “emotionally committed to achieving genuine independence, politically and economically” (p.96) The moderates were more conservative leaders who aligned with the Western countries and represented their interests These latter were empowered by extensive Western involvement they would shape Congo’s future

Answer 44

24 Nov. 1965: Tshombé and Kasavubu reach electoral deadlock; Mobutu stages a second coup and becomes formal head of state Approximately 100k people killed, 1960-1965 Mobutuist system “ruled the country at the pleasure of foreign powers to the disadvantage of their own people”

Answer 45

Colonial powers used covert violence to achieve their aims They wanted access to resources Beloved, driven, visionary Third World leaders were killed Newly independent countries were plunged into chaos Visions of African unity were subverted

Answer 46

Massacre of African men in the french military Up to 300 West African troops demanding four years’ back wages were massacred by French troops at Thiaroye, Senegal The exact number of dead was never established Buried in a mass grave, France covered it up Compensation was never paid Details still murky

Answer 47

The French Union, created in 1948, held that there were no colonies as such, only metropolitan France, the overseas departments, and the overseas territories – in reality, colonies had virtually no power A 1956 law provided for greater autonomy to address the pressures of the Algerian War (1954-62) The 1m French settlers in Algeria ‘les pieds noirs’ were opposed to any form of independence for Algeria The debate over Algeria threatened to cause civil war in France Abandonment seen by French of territories Led to the polarization of left and right political parties in France This led to the collapse of the 4th Republic and the formation of the 5th Republic, with Charles de Gaulle brought back as president

Answer 48

The new constitution, voted on in a referendum across the French Union, allowed for colonies’ independence French Guinea under Ahmed Sekou Touré opted for full independence; France withdrew all aid and infrastructure and persuaded Western countries not to recognize Guinea Chad, Dahomey (Benin), French Sudan (Mali), Côte d’Ivoire, Madagascar, Mauritania, Middle Congo (Congo-Brazzaville and Gabon), Niger, Senegal, Ubangi-Shari (Central African Republic) and Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) opted to become states of the French Community

Answer 49

Community member-states had autonomy and their own constitutions The community had jurisdiction over foreign policy, defense, economic, financial and strategic policy In 1960, members of the community began gaining formal independence; the community ceased to exist by 1963, but remained in the French constitution until 1995 After gaining formal independence, former French colonies in Africa remained closely attached to France Many still use the CFA (communauté financière africaine) Franc as currency, pegged first to the French Franc and now the euro

Answer 50

Economic benefits of (neo-) colonial ties have been key to French global might and stature Former colonies “supply at low prices the raw materials that are absolutely necessary for the survival of the French economy: aluminum from Cameroon, phosphates from Senegal, oil from Gabon, and uranium from Niger” This has meant propping up friendly regimes and toppling African nationalist ones France intervened militarily in Africa more than 30 times, more than any other former colonial powers

Answer 51

A pejorative term that describes French neo-colonial relations with its former African colonies Originally coined by Ivorian president Felix Houphouët-Boigny, describing his country’s relative prosperity and stability through its alliance with France Came to denote a shadowy network of military, intelligence, and business ties between French elites and their African counterparts, with no oversight or accountability

Answer 52

From 1960-1974, was the French President’s Chief of Staff for African and Malagasy matters for De Gaulle and Pompidou Dismissed by V. Giscard d’Estaing in 1974, then re-hired by PM Jacques Chirac in 1986, kept on until mid-1990s Founded the Service d’Action Civique (SAC), a covert operations arm of French policy in Africa Foccart wielded tremendous influence on French policy in Africa and planned and coordinated numerous covert operations, including coup attempts and invasions

Answer 53

Counter-insurgency campaign waged in near- or total secrecy in which massive human rights violations and killing of civilians are the norm Colonial wars, waged far from the metropole and with limited media coverage at best- often under heavy censorship was fought largely in secrecy Local populations have often been the best source of knowledge about what happened under these conditions

Answer 54

French troops put down a pro-independence uprising in Madagascar from March 1947 to December 1948, killing an estimated 30-40k Malagasy (some estimate over 100k) Many insurgents were Malagasy former soldiers in the French army who received no veterans’ recognition or compensation French soldiers used mass execution, torture, mass rape, burning of villages, throwing people from planes into the ocean In a 2005 visit, Chirac called the war “unacceptable,”; but France still refuses to declassify documents related to the war

Answer 55

French troops waged a lengthy war in Cameroon (1957-70) to crush the pro-independence Union of Cameroonian Peoples (UPC), killing 300k The UPC, founded in 1948 by Felix Moumié, Ruben Um Nyobé, and Ernest Ouandié, demanded immediate independence from France, unity with Biriths Csmeroon, and non-adherence to the French Union France crushed protesters in 1955; and started waging war in 1957 against guerrillas in the highlands French troops used mass execution, torture and rape widely UPC founders were hunted down and killed

Answer 56

1 Jan. 1960: C formerly gained independence President Ahmadou Ahidjo, handpicked by France, continued an anti-guerilla campaign until the 1970s French troops remained in Cameroon for years

Answer 57

Ahidjo remained in power until 1982 Replaced by Paul Biya, still in power today (age 91) Biya is widely regarded in Cameroon and French pawn Opposition parties legalized it in 1990, but Biya has won every election since, often with irregularities and allegations of fraud Opposition figures and critics are often arrested, silenced

Answer 58

P had colonies in Africa dating back to 1415; by the 1500s, P occupied coastal parts of Angola Major powers earlier, therefore, started colonizing earlier P initially engaged in trade relations that were not initially predictory or exploitation Kingdom of Congo as equals at first That relationship would change with the transatlantic slave trade While other European countries were granting independence to their former colonies, P clung to theirs in devastating wars P regarded its colonies as overseas territorial extensions

Answer 59

Overseas colonies gave P prestige, much-needed natural resources “Without the cheap labor and raw materials that resulted from a harsh forced labor regime, P’s industries would not be profitable” - Schmidt p.79 The authoritarian Estado Novo regime ruled Portugal

Answer 60

Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) was founded in 1956 Defeated the Portuguese on the battlefield

Answer 61

Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) was founded in 1956; FNLA (Angola National Liberation Front) was founded in 1962; and UNITA (Union for the Total Independence of Angola) was founded in 1966

Answer 62

Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO) founded 1962 1961: in Casablanca, Morocco, they form the Conference of Nationalist Organizations of the Portuguese Colonies (CNOPC)

Answer 63

NATO countries provided hundreds of millions of dollars of military aid to enable Portugal to fight three colonial wars simultaneously (Schmidt) This was supposedly to fight “communism” US “weapons, tanks, places, ships, helicopters, napalm, and chemical defoliants were used against Africans”; the US also trained Portuguese forces Widely used in the Vietnam war US relied on P’s ultra-strategic Azores islands air base in the Atlantic

Answer 64

JFK sought to sideline communism by encouraging moderate African independence movements, including FNLA Moderate meant neither communist nor capitalist Movements more open to the West 1961: Violence breaks out in Angola; the Kennedy administration and USSR, censure Portugal at the UN 10k killed Disproportionate violent response France and UK back Portugal; Salazar defiant Kennedy and key aides diverged on policy toward Portugal Split in the US Government Why alienate an ally? Block of anti-communists and segregationists in the US Congress mobilized in support of P 1961-1962 Cold war escalates with the Berlin Crisis and Cuban missile crisis; Kennedy stops opposing P’s African wars 1963-1964: Johnson, Nixon, and Kissinger favor Portugal; have no sympathy for African self-determination Henry Kissinger, Secretary of State

Answer 65

Nixon thought White colonial regimes in Africa were key US allies 1969 policy document “Study in Response to National Security Study Memorandum 39” hardened US policy towards southern Africa The US now sought to safeguard economic and strategic interests and to deny opportunities to the Soviets and Chinese US weapons sales to Portugal increased, and oil investment in Angola grew

Answer 66

Portugal officially maintained a policy of multi-racialism and assimilation, whereby Africans could gain some rights and even become citizens Portugal recruited Africans into its military, creating entire units of Africans The Flechas (“arrows”) were a notorious unit of African scouts in the Portuguese army, deployed in all three colonies 1961: 18% of Portuguese troops were African; 1974: over 50% were “Divide and conquer” tactics: recruiting Africans to fight each other

Answer 67

African nationalist consciousness was not universal; in some parts, it wasn’t even widespread The colonial army paid relatively well, one of the only opportunities for African upward mobility Colonial powers sought to recruit soldiers from rival ethnic groups and play different ethnicities off of each other Captured guerrillas were often tortured and given a choice: join the enemy or be killed

Answer 68

PAIGC (African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde) was founded by 1956 Initially just founded as a political party and social movement but then became a revolutionary party Recurring theme that national political party movements turned to armed struggle when there were colonial powers in the way Turned to armed struggle after Portuguese soldiers massacred 50 striking African dockworkers at Pijiguiti in 1959 PAIGC waged guerrilla warfare in the jungles starting in 1963 It was the best organized, best-trained, and most successful of the guerrilla armies fighting the Portuguese Portugal’s response was to bomb schools, clinics, markets, villages, and any infrastructure established by PAIGC Closely mimicking US tactics for the Vietnam War happening at the same time Portugal was trained by the US

Answer 69

The PAIGC received key support from Sekou Touré’s Guinea Refused to join the French Union PAIGC cadres received training in Guinea, Ghana, Algeria, Morocco, Cuba, China, and Czechoslovakia The Warsaw Pact was relevant there 1962: The USSR began supplying PAIGC with weaponry 1965: Cuba sent doctors, instructors, and weapons Cuba sent a doctor for military and economic/agricultural techniques Arms struggle gained momentum 1970: Portugal launches amphibious invasion of Guinea, aiming to crush PAIGC Invasion from sea to land Produce results in immediate circumstances but not enough for Portugal to win

Answer 70

Jan. 1973: Cabral assassinated in Conakry, Guinea, in a plot by Portuguese PIDE secret services Cabral was the leader of PAIGC 1973: PAIGC’s new Soviet shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles (SA-7) neutralize Portuguese air power, shooting down 18 aircraft in four months Game-changing weapons They defeated the Portuguese and forced unconditional Portuguese withdrawal in 1973; gained independence in 1974 The third wave of democratization Portugal in 1974, Spain in 1975 P goes from military dictatorship to democracy, economic turmoil and unpopularity of the regime, impact of P’s natural liberation wars African contribution to the third wave should not be underestimated; it all started with Guinea-Bissau

Answer 71

Adopted a Marxist framework for understanding global economic history He was also an African nationalist and a humanist Motivated by a vision of social justice and an end to exploitation His realism was rooted in pragmatism, and his training and experience as an agronomist Not trying to shape facts and reality to an ideological lens but relating to conditions on the ground, conditions of people, adapting ideology suitable for national liberation

Answer 72

Tell no lies and claim no easy victories This relates to his view on realism After liberation, tremendous pressure, systematically underdeveloped, low rates of literacy, economy only forged on Portyugal’s profit

Answer 73

“Our own reality- however fine and attractive the reality of others may be can only be transformed by detailed knowledge of it” Each country had to find solutions to its particular set of problems “Are we really liberating our people, the human beings in our country, from all forms of oppression? Ask me simply this and draw your own conclusions.” Guinea-Bissau should not follow an externally devised ideology but find solutions to its own set of problems The benchmark was whether a decision/ ideology was furthering the liberation of the people

Answer 74

Portuguese atrocities such as the Mueda massacre of hundreds of peaceful protesters, gave impetus to armed struggle 1962: FRELIMO founded; headquartered in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Backed by China, USSR (militarily) and Nordic countries (politically) Important measures of support Nordic countries like Sweden and Finland gave financial support like UN Supporting Mozambican refugees 1964: First combat operation, infiltrating from Tanzania

Answer 75

1968: FRELIMO had established liberated zones in northern Mozambique, where it held de facto political power More present in Mozambique No de jure recognition yet 1969: Founder Eduardo Mondlane was assassinated in Dar es Salaam Setback for FRELIMO Assassinated by Portuguese secret services in a packaged bomb 1970: Portuguese “Gordian Knot” military offensive pushes FRELIMO back 1974: FRELIMO re-establishes control over much of northern and central Mozambique

Answer 76

Josina Machel, “Mother of a Nation” (1945-67) Joined liberation struggle and was killed early on Samora Machel, first president of Mozambique (1933-86) Got assassinated as well

Answer 77

FRELIMO had strongest support from Makonde ethnicity but also had some support across most sectors of Mozambican society It was non-racial; whites and mixed-race people also joined Promoted pan-racialism ideal The enemy was not the Portuguese per se, but the colonial system imposed by Portugal Identified colonial, capitalist exploitation as the enemy; not the Portuguese or Europeans as such It adopted Marxist tenets; and sought to create a socialist society with collectivized agriculture and education in the zones it had liberated Viewed urbanization as a necessary step for revolutionary consciousness Also had Maoism views, could develop in peasant rural areas Illiteracy among the African population in 1965 was at 97.86%

Answer 78

Fighting the colonial wars had put immense economic strain on Portugal 1968: Salazar suffers a stroke; replaced by Marcelo Caetano 1974: 200,000 Portuguese troops deployed abroad; most were conscripted from working-class backgrounds Across three different African countries: Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau Anti-war sentiment began to build / can be compared to US anti-war sentiment in Vietnam war Different in that Portugal didn’t allow speaking against the government

Answer 79

April 1974: Young army officers disenchanted with the war overthrow Caetano, ending colonial rule Guinea-Bissau gained independence in September 1974, followed by Mozambique, Cape Verde, and Angola in 1975

Answer 80

On 3 Feb. 1960, British PM Harold MacMillan gave a speech to the South African Parliament signaling British support for its colonies’ independence: “The wind of change is blowing through this continent. Whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a political fact.” In the speech, MacMillan indicated he had issues with apartheid: “As a fellow member of the Commonwealth, it is our earnest desire to give South Africa our support and encouragement, but I hope you won't mind my saying frankly there are some aspects of your policies that make it impossible for us to do this without being false to our own deep convictions about the political destinies of free men to which in our own territories we are trying to give effect” Cannot talk about human rights across the colonies while tolerating the apartheid In this key context, UK is shifting away from minority white rule in African countries

Answer 81

In 1964, Zambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia) and Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) gained independence Unwilling to submit to African majority rule, Southern Rhodesia, under PM Ian Smith, declared its “independence” and renamed itself Rhodesia They did not care what the British wanted The following year, the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and Zimbabwe African Peoples’ Union (ZAPU) began a guerrilla war ZANU is a majority Shona organization, about 65-70% of Zimbabwe’s population The UN refused to recognize Rhodesia and imposed sanctions on it; but informally, the UK, France, USA, Portugal, and South Africa gave it vital support Strong ties, done covertly, diplomatically impolitic Rhodesia embodied Cecil Rhodes’ original vision of white racial superiority

Answer 82

1965: Rhodesia PM Ian Smith issues ‘Unilateral Declaration of Independence’ ZANU (Zimbabwe African National Union) under Robert Mugabe and its military wing, Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) ZAPU (Zimbabwe African People’s Union) under Joshua Nkomo and its military wing, Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) Ethnoregional difference between ZANU and ZAPU Fought the Rhodesians in a protracted guerilla war Whites called “the bush war”

Answer 83

Women only belatedly incorporated in ZANU and ZAPU’s fighting ranks, in the early 1970s Women fighters “did not stop to think of themselves as women in struggle” They joined for various reasons- some had fully formed ideologies, others desired education or other opportunities denied under colonialism Even behind the lines, many faced combat when Rhodesian forces attacked their camps

Answer 84

Strikes on guerilla bases in Zambia and Mozambique- raids on Nyadzonya (1976) and Chimoio (1977) killed hundreds each, mostly civilians Forced villagization of rural African populations Close cooperation with the Portuguese (until 1975) and with apartheid South Africa

Answer 85

Rhodesia’s economy and society are under mounting pressure as war wears on 1979-80: UK brokers an independence agreement, the Lancaster House Accords 1980: ZANU comes to power; several parliamentary seats reserved for whites Concessions Rhodesians extracted, white governmental representation Very little land redistribution to Africans