midterm Flashcards
What is Functional Fixedness?
The tendency to perceive an object only in terms of its usual function, which can limit problem-solving abilities.
What is a Mental Set?
The tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on previous experiences, even if a different approach might be more effective.
What is the difference between Algorithms and Heuristics?
Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution, while heuristics are mental shortcuts or ‘rules of thumb’ that simplify problem-solving but don’t always guarantee a correct solution.
What is Inductive Reasoning?
Drawing general conclusions from specific observations.
What is Deductive Reasoning?
Applying general principles to make specific predictions or conclusions.
What is the Availability Heuristic?
Relying on immediate examples that come to mind when making decisions.
What is the Representativeness Heuristic?
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype.
What is Confirmation Bias?
The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preconceptions.
What is Hindsight Bias?
The ‘knew it all along’ effect, believing after the fact that an event was predictable.
What is Loss Aversion?
The tendency to prefer avoiding losses rather than acquiring equivalent gains.
What is the Sunk Cost Fallacy?
Continuing a behavior or endeavor because of previously invested resources, even if it’s no longer beneficial.
What is Anchoring Bias?
Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.
What is the Gambler’s Fallacy?
The belief that past events affect future events in random activities.
What is the Framing Effect?
People’s decisions are influenced by how information is presented, such as whether something is framed as a loss or gain.
What is Metacognition?
The awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes; thinking about thinking.
What is Cognitive Load?
The amount of mental effort required to process information. Too much load can impair learning and problem-solving.
What is Divergent Thinking?
Generating many possible solutions to a problem.
What is Convergent Thinking?
Narrowing down to the best solution to a problem.
What is Top-down Processing?
Using existing knowledge or expectations to interpret information.
What is Bottom-up Processing?
Building understanding from the ground up, starting with basic data.
What is Trial and Error in problem-solving?
Trying different solutions until one works.
What is Means-End Analysis?
Breaking down a problem into smaller subgoals to reach the final goal.
What are Subgoals?
Dividing a complex task into manageable parts.
What is Insight in problem-solving?
Sudden realization or ‘aha!’ moment.
What is Analytical Problem-Solving?
Solving problems step-by-step through logical reasoning.
What are Phonemes?
Smallest units of sound (e.g., ‘b’ in ‘bat’).
What are Morphemes?
Smallest units of meaning (e.g., ‘un-‘ or ‘ed’).
What is Syntax?
Rules governing the structure of sentences.
What is Semantics?
Meaning of words and sentences.
What is Pragmatics?
Contextual aspects of language (e.g., tone, social norms).
What is Babbling in language acquisition?
Repeated consonant-vowel combinations, starting around 6 months.
What is the One-word Stage?
Using one word to convey meaning, usually by 1 year.
What is the Two-word Stage?
Simple two-word combinations by around 2 years.
What is Telegraphic Speech?
Short, simplified sentences (e.g., ‘Want cookie’).
What is the Critical Period Hypothesis?
The idea that there is a specific window in early life when language acquisition occurs most easily.
What is Bilingualism and Cognitive Flexibility?
Bilingual individuals often show greater cognitive flexibility, better executive control, and problem-solving skills due to managing two languages.
What is Linguistic Relativity?
The theory that the language we speak shapes our perception of reality.
What is Code-switching?
Switching between languages or dialects depending on context or audience.
What are the effects of Language Deprivation?
Lack of exposure to language during critical periods can severely affect cognitive and social development.
What is the relationship between Language and Thought?
Language influences thought, but the relationship is bidirectional.
What is Broca’s Area?
Involved in speech production (damage causes Broca’s aphasia).
What is Wernicke’s Area?
Involved in language comprehension (damage causes Wernicke’s aphasia).
What is Broca’s Aphasia?
Difficulty speaking but can understand language.
What is Wernicke’s Aphasia?
Fluent speech that lacks meaning, with poor comprehension.
What is Gene-environment interaction?
The dynamic interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental factors.
What is Epigenetics?
Changes in gene expression influenced by environment and experience.
What are Critical vs. Sensitive Periods?
Critical periods are windows of time when certain experiences must occur for development; sensitive periods are optimal times for certain experiences.
What are Teratogens?
Harmful substances (e.g., drugs, alcohol) that can affect prenatal development.
What are the stages of Prenatal Development?
Germinal: First 2 weeks (cell division). Embryonic: Weeks 3-8 (major organ development). Fetal: Weeks 9-birth (growth and refinement).
What is the Sensorimotor stage in Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?
Birth-2 years; object permanence develops.
What is the Preoperational stage in Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?
2-7 years; egocentrism and lack of conservation.
What is the Concrete Operational stage in Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?
7-11 years; logical thinking, conservation.
What is the Formal Operational stage in Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?
12+ years; abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking.
What is Object Permanence?
Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not seen.
What is Egocentrism?
Inability to see things from another’s perspective (preoperational stage).
What is Conservation?
Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape/appearance.
What is Assimilation?
Incorporating new information into existing schemas.
What is Accommodation?
Changing schemas to incorporate new information.
What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?
The range of tasks a child can do with help.
What is Scaffolding?
Support given to a learner to help them perform within the ZPD.
What is the Role of Culture in Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory?
Cognitive development is influenced by social interactions within a cultural context.
What is the Strange Situation Task?
A test to measure attachment in infants.
What are the types of Attachment Styles?
Secure: Confident exploration with caregiver support. Avoidant: Indifferent to caregiver. Anxious: Clingy, fearful of separation. Disorganized: Confused behaviors (often due to trauma).
What is the impact of Early Attachment?
Influences emotional regulation and adult relationships.
What are Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development?
Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy), Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlerhood), Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool), Industry vs. Inferiority (School age), Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence), Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood), Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood), Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood).
What are Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development?
Preconventional: Moral reasoning based on consequences. Conventional: Moral reasoning based on societal rules and norms. Postconventional: Moral reasoning based on abstract principles and ethics.
What is the Heinz Dilemma?
A scenario used to test moral reasoning.
What is Gilligan’s Critique?
Critiqued Kohlberg for not considering gender differences in moral reasoning.
What is Binet and Simon’s IQ Test?
Developed by Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon in the early 20th century to measure the intellectual development of children.
What is the mental age concept?
The test compares the child’s intellectual age to their chronological age.
What is Spearman’s G and S?
G (General Intelligence): A single factor that underlies all cognitive abilities. S (Specific Abilities): Specific abilities that are independent of general intelligence.
What is Cattell & Horn’s Fluid Intelligence?
The ability to solve novel problems and think abstractly; declines with age.
What is Cattell & Horn’s Crystallized Intelligence?
Accumulated knowledge and skills; tends to increase with age.
What is the formula for calculating IQ?
Originally calculated as (Mental Age / Chronological Age) * 100.
What is the WAIS?
A widely used IQ test for adults, assessing verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.
What is Emotional Intelligence (EI)?
The ability to recognize, understand, manage, and influence one’s own emotions, as well as the emotions of others.
What is the Fixed Mindset?
Belief that intelligence and abilities are static and cannot change.
What is the Growth Mindset?
Belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort and learning.
How does Socioeconomic Status influence Intelligence?
Socioeconomic status (SES) can impact access to education, nutrition, and a stimulating environment, all of which contribute to cognitive development and IQ scores.
