Midterm Flashcards
Varangians
The Varangians were Norse traders and warriors who played a crucial role in the early formation of Kievan Rus’. They established trading routes along the Dnieper and Volga rivers, connecting the Slavic lands with the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world. Their influence helped lay the foundations for the political and economic structures of early Russia.
Kiev
Kiev was the center of the Kievan Rus’, the first significant East Slavic state, flourishing as a political and cultural hub from the 9th to 13th centuries. It served as a vital link between the Slavic world and Byzantium, influencing the spread of Orthodox Christianity. The city’s decline began with the Mongol invasion in the 13th century, shifting power to other regions like Moscow.
Saint Vladimir (Vladimir the Great)
Saint Vladimir, also known as Vladimir the Great, was the Grand Prince of Kiev who converted to Christianity in 988. His decision to adopt Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium profoundly shaped Russian religious and cultural identity. He is regarded as a key figure in the Christianization of the region, paving the way for the close relationship between church and state.
Baptism of Rus’
The Baptism of Rus’ refers to the mass conversion of Kievan Rus’ to Orthodox Christianity under Saint Vladimir in 988. This event marked the beginning of deep cultural and religious ties between Russia and Byzantium. It influenced the development of Russian identity, legal codes, and artistic traditions based on Byzantine models.
Prince Alexander Nevsky
Prince Alexander Nevsky was a 13th-century Russian prince who defended Novgorod from Swedish and Germanic invasions. He is remembered for his strategic alliance with the Mongols to resist Western European incursions. His role in safeguarding Russian lands made him a national hero and later a saint in the Russian Orthodox Church.
The Golden Horde/The Mongol ‘Yoke’
The Golden Horde was the Mongol Khanate that ruled over Russia for over two centuries following the Mongol invasion in the 13th century. This period, known as the ‘Mongol Yoke,’ influenced Russian governance, military structure, and tribute systems. The Mongols played a crucial role in shaping the future power of Moscow as they granted it privileges over rival cities.
Moscow as the ‘Third Rome’
The concept of Moscow as the ‘Third Rome’ emerged after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, positioning Moscow as the new center of Orthodox Christianity. This ideology justified Moscow’s claim to spiritual and political leadership over the Orthodox world. It reinforced the Tsar’s role as a divine ruler, legitimizing Russian expansionism.
Ivan IV
(‘The Terrible’)
Ivan IV, or ‘The Terrible,’ was the first Tsar of Russia, ruling from 1547 to 1584. He centralized power, expanded Russian territory, and established the brutal Oprichnina to suppress opposition. His reign was marked by both military successes and devastating internal repression, shaping the autocratic nature of Russian rule.
Poland
(The Polish-
Lithuanian Commonwealth)
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a powerful European state from the 16th to 18th centuries, frequently competing with Russia for influence over Eastern Europe. It played a key role in the wars for control over Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltics. The Commonwealth’s decline eventually led to its partitions by Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
The conquest of Kazan
The conquest of Kazan in 1552 by Ivan IV marked a significant expansion of Russian territory. It ended Tatar rule over the Volga region and solidified Russian dominance over Muslim populations. This victory was a crucial step in Russia’s eastward expansion and integration of diverse ethnic groups.
The Time of Troubles
The Time of Troubles (1598–1613) was a period of political chaos following the death of Ivan IV’s son, Fyodor I. Russia faced foreign invasions, famine, and internal power struggles, nearly collapsing as a state. The crisis ended with the establishment of the Romanov dynasty, which restored stability.
The colonization of Siberia
The colonization of Siberia began in the late 16th century, driven by fur trade and territorial expansion. Russian explorers and Cossacks pushed eastward, reaching the Pacific by the 17th century. This expansion created a vast Russian empire and integrated new indigenous groups into its administration.
Peter the Great’s “Window to the West”
Peter the Great sought to modernize Russia by opening it to European influence, symbolized by the construction of Saint Petersburg. The city served as a new capital, promoting Western-style governance, military reforms, and cultural changes. This effort marked Russia’s transition into a European power.
The Great Northern War
A conflict between Russia and Sweden (1700–1721) that secured Russian dominance over the Baltic region. Peter the Great’s victory allowed Russia access to the sea, strengthening trade and military capabilities. The war marked the beginning of Russia’s emergence as a major European power.
Peter’s regulations on appearance & dress
Peter the Great enforced Western-style clothing and banned beards among nobles to modernize Russian society. These regulations symbolized his broader campaign to align Russia with European customs. Resistance to these changes reflected the deep divide between reformists and traditionalists in Russian society.
The Holy Synod
Established by Peter the Great in 1721 to replace the Patriarchate of Moscow, bringing the Orthodox Church under state control. It allowed the tsar to regulate religious matters, limiting the church’s independence. This move reinforced autocratic rule by integrating religion into state governance.
Empress Elizabeth (Elizaveta Petrovna)
Ruled Russia from 1741 to 1762, continuing Peter the Great’s Westernization policies while fostering the arts. She led Russia through the Seven Years’ War, strengthening its influence in European affairs. Her reign was marked by cultural flourishing and military success.
The Seven Years War
A global conflict (1756–1763) involving major European powers, including Russia, which fought against Prussia. Russia occupied parts of Prussia but withdrew after Elizabeth’s death. The war showcased Russia’s military strength and growing role in European politics.
Catherine II (“The Great”)
Empress of Russia (1762–1796) who expanded Russian territory and implemented Enlightenment-inspired reforms. She sought to modernize Russia while maintaining absolute rule. Her reign marked a golden age of Russian culture, military expansion, and political consolidation.
The Enlightenment in Russia
A period in the 18th century when Russian rulers, especially Catherine the Great, embraced European Enlightenment ideas. These included legal reforms, education improvements, and state-building efforts. However, Enlightenment ideals often conflicted with autocratic rule.
The Partitions of Poland
Three territorial divisions (1772, 1793, 1795) in which Russia, Prussia, and Austria dismantled the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russia gained significant land, incorporating many non-Russian peoples. These partitions reshaped Eastern Europe and increased Russian influence.
Grigorii Potemkin
& the Annexation of Crimea
Potemkin was a Russian statesman and military leader who orchestrated the annexation of Crimea in 1783. This move secured Russian dominance over the Black Sea and expanded its influence in the region. The annexation was part of Russia’s broader imperial ambitions.
Aleksandr Radishchev
A Russian writer and critic of serfdom who published Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow (1790). His work attacked social injustices and criticized autocracy, leading to his exile. He was an early advocate for reform in Russia.
Alexander I’s “Unofficial Committee”
A group of advisers who helped Tsar Alexander I (r. 1801–1825) implement early liberal reforms. The committee sought to modernize Russia’s government and legal system. However, Alexander later abandoned many reformist ideas in favor of conservatism.
The War of 1812/
Napoleonic invasion
Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812 led to a disastrous retreat after the Russian scorched-earth strategy and harsh winter weakened his army. The Russian victory boosted national pride and contributed to Napoleon’s downfall. The war reinforced Russia’s role as a major European power.
The Congress of Vienna & the Concert of Europe
The 1815 Congress of Vienna redrew Europe’s borders after the Napoleonic Wars, with Russia gaining control over Poland. The Concert of Europe established a system of international diplomacy to maintain stability. Russia emerged as a dominant conservative force in European politics.
The Decembrist Revolt
A failed 1825 uprising led by Russian officers demanding constitutional reforms and the abolition of serfdom. It was suppressed by Tsar Nicholas I, leading to harsher autocratic rule. The revolt symbolized early resistance to Russian absolutism.
Official Nationality
A state ideology under Nicholas I emphasizing Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality. It sought to reinforce loyalty to the tsar and suppress Western liberal ideas. This policy shaped Russian conservatism throughout the 19th century.
Westernizers and Slavophiles
Two intellectual movements in 19th-century Russia debating the country’s future. Westernizers sought European-style modernization, while Slavophiles emphasized Russian traditions and Orthodox identity. Their debate influenced Russian political and cultural development.
Russia as “Gendarme of Europe”
A term describing Russia’s role in suppressing revolutions across Europe in the 19th century. Under Nicholas I, Russia intervened to support conservative regimes. This reinforced its reputation as a defender of monarchy and reactionary policies.
The Crimean War
A conflict (1853–1856) between Russia and an alliance of Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire. Russia’s defeat exposed its military weaknesses, leading to calls for reform. The war marked a turning point in Russian domestic and foreign policy.
The “Great Reforms” of Alexander II
A series of major reforms in the 1860s, including the abolition of serfdom in 1861. These changes aimed to modernize Russia but also sparked unrest. The reforms ultimately failed to prevent revolutionary movements.
Revolutionary Movement (late 19th c.)
Various radical groups, including populists and Marxists, sought to overthrow the tsarist regime. Their activities led to increased repression by the state. These movements laid the groundwork for the Russian Revolution.
Konstantin Pobedonostsev
A conservative advisor to Tsars Alexander III and Nicholas II who opposed liberal reforms, as well as procurator of the Holy Synod. He advocated for autocracy, nationalism, and the suppression of dissent. His influence shaped Russia’s reactionary policies in the late 19th century.
Russian Empire & the “Great Game” in late 19thc.
A geopolitical struggle between Russia and Britain for influence in Central Asia. Russia expanded into Central Asia, while Britain sought to protect its interests in India. The rivalry shaped 19th-century imperialism.
Russo-
Japanese War
A 1904–1905 war in which Russia suffered a humiliating defeat against Japan. The loss weakened the tsarist regime and fueled revolutionary sentiment. The war demonstrated Japan’s rising power and Russia’s military decline.
Count Sergei Witte
A key Russian statesman who promoted industrialization and economic modernization in the late 19th century. He played a major role in building Russia’s railway system and negotiating peace after the Russo-Japanese War. His policies shaped Russia’s economy before the revolution.
Revolution of 1905
A wave of protests and strikes demanding political reforms following Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War. The revolution forced Tsar Nicholas II to grant a constitution and create the Duma. However, most reforms were later reversed.
The Duma Period (1906-17)
A period of limited parliamentary rule in Russia after the 1905 Revolution. The Duma had restricted power, as the tsar retained control. Political instability persisted, leading to the eventual collapse of the monarchy.
Pëtr Stolypin
A reformist prime minister under Nicholas II who sought to strengthen the monarchy through land reforms and repression of radicals. His policies aimed at stabilizing Russia but were cut short by his assassination in 1911.
Russia in the Great War (WWI)
Russia suffered heavy losses in World War I due to poor leadership and lack of supplies. The war deepened domestic unrest, leading to the 1917 revolution. The military failures exposed the weakness of the tsarist regime.
The Provisional Government
Formed after Nicholas II’s abdication in 1917, it attempted democratic reforms but failed to address economic and military crises. It was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in October 1917
The October Revolution of 1917
Led by the Bolsheviks, this revolution overthrew the Provisional Government and established a socialist state. It marked the beginning of Soviet rule in Russia.
“Socialism in One Country”
Stalin’s policy asserting that socialism could succeed in the Soviet Union without global revolution. This approach emphasized internal development over international communist expansion.
