Final Flashcards
1
Q
The Comintern
A
- The Comintern, or Communist International, was an organization founded in 1919 to promote worldwide communism and facilitate cooperation among socialist parties.
- It sought to encourage revolutionary movements in other countries, reflecting the Soviet Union’s desire to spread its revolutionary ideology abroad.
- The Comintern’s advocacy for global revolution created tensions with Western powers, who viewed it as a threat to capitalism and democracy.
- Its influence waned after the 1930s as the Soviet Union shifted towards a more nationalistic approach in its foreign policy and internal politics. It was officially abolished in 1943, when “socialism in one country” was the official ideology
2
Q
Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War
A
- This refers to the military intervention by Allied powers (including Britain, France, the U.S., and Japan) in the Russian Civil War (1917-1922), supporting anti-Bolshevik forces (the Whites).
- Motivated by fears of spreading communism and the desire to protect military stockpiles and eastern front operations during World War I, the Allies attempted to prevent the Bolshevik regime from taking power
- The intervention contributed to a deep mistrust between the Soviet Union and Western nations, laying the groundwork for future adversarial relations and confirming the ideology of ‘hostile capitalist encirclement’
- The Red Army was better able to recruit peassants and occupy the heartland, leading to their victors
- War exacerbeated the Bolshevik’s violent, authoritarian tendencies, heightening paranoia that would peak during Stalin’s “Terror”
- The failure of the intervention led to a solidification of Bolshevik power and the eventual establishment of the Soviet regime.
3
Q
Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
A
- The USSR was established in 1922 as a federal union of multiple socialist republics under the centralized control of the Communist Party.
- The USSR encompassed 80% of the Russian Empire, with the exemption of the Baltics, Poland, and Finland
- The USSR pledged to respect national minorities and was designed to maximize national homogeneity
- “Nationalist in form, socialist in content”
- The formation represented the Bolsheviks’ consolidation of power following the Russian Revolution and the civil war, promoting a new ideology of Marxism-Leninism.
- The USSR’s establishment altered the political landscape of the world and introduced a counterpoint to capitalist states, leading to heightened ideological tensions with the West.
4
Q
The Great Terror (Purges)
A
- The Great Terror refers to a period of intense political repression in the late 1930s under Joseph Stalin, characterized by widespread purges, executions, and imprisonment of perceived enemies.
- This period was one of heightened paranoia and suspicion of foreign influence in the lead-up to WWII, as the USSR was surrounded by the hostile Germany and Japan
- This campaign aimed to eliminate dissent and consolidate Stalin’s power internally, often targeting party members, military leaders, and intellectuals.
- NKVD was given quotas for arrests and executions of “anti-Soviet elements”, who were often tortured and subjected to show trials
- Denunciations were encouraged, and people often settled old scores
- The purges targeted kulaks, nobles and priests, intellectuals and writers, members of other nationalities (Germans, Poles, Koreans)
- Most were sent to concentration camps called gulags, where the contributed to industrialization
- Ended in 1938
- The purges weakened the Soviet military and bureaucratic leadership shortly before World War II, impacting its preparedness against external enemies.
- Opened the door for younger generation of Soviets to take up pisitions
5
Q
The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
A
- Signed in August 1939, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was a non-aggression treaty between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, containing secret protocols for the division of Eastern Europe.
- The pact allowed the USSR to regain territories lost after World War I (Baltics, Ukraine, Belarus) and avoid immediate conflict with Germany, setting the stage for the invasion of Poland.
- Although Stalin was not a friend to Hitler, he wanted the Soviet Union to stand aside while capitalist and fascist powers fought eachother
- It shocked the West, especially given the ideological opposition between fascism and communism; this diplomatic maneuvering highlighted the pragmatic approach of Stalin’s foreign policy.
- The agreement shifted the balance of power in Europe and laid the groundwork for the subsequent divisions of territory in Eastern Europe during and after World War II.
6
Q
Operation Barbarossa
A
- Operation Barbarossa was the code name for Nazi Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, marking a significant turning point in World War II.
- The suprise invasion breached the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and caught the Soviet Union off-guard, leading to significant initial losses and hardship.
- Germans quickly occupied much of western borderlands and sieged Leningrad, but failed to take Moscow
- Despite early setbacks, the Soviet Union’s resilience and counteroffensive ultimately contributed to the defeat of Germany.
- Fearcest battles at Stalingrad, wher Soviets won at a cost of half million Soviet lives
- The war forged a temporary alliance between the USSR and Western powers against a common enemy, transforming Russian relations with the West temporarily from hostility to cooperation.
7
Q
The Great Patriotic War
A
- The Great Patriotic War is how Russia and other former Soviet republics refer to the Eastern Front of World War II, specifically from 1941 to 1945, when the USSR fought against Nazi Germany.
- The war instilled a sense of nationalism and unity in the USSR, with victory celebrated as a defining moment in Soviet history and trauma commemorated for generations
- The sacrifices and losses suffered (around 27 million Soviets) strengthened Soviet legitimacy and demonstrated the prowess of industrialization
- It catalyzed the Soviet Union’s emergence as a superpower, reshaping its relations with the West during the subsequent Cold War period.
8
Q
Yalta Conference (Feb. 1945)
A
- The Yalta Conference was a meeting between the leaders of the Allied powers—U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin—in February 1945 to discuss post-war reorganization.
- The decisions made (including the division of Germany and spheres of influence in Eastern Europe) laid the groundwork for the post-war order and the Cold War escalation.
- Yalta reflected both cooperation among the Allies and the underlying tensions regarding the future of Europe, particularly concerning Soviet influence over Eastern Europe.
- The agreements reached would later be contentious points in U.S.-Soviet relations, as the West perceived Soviet actions as expansionist.
9
Q
George F. Kennan’s “Long Telegram”
A
- Authored in 1946 by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan, the “Long Telegram” was a seminal document outlining the Soviet Union’s behavior and the need for a comprehensive strategy of containment by the West.
- Kennan’s analysis underscored the belief that the USSR would seek to expand its influence while attempting to undermine Western capitalism, shaping U.S. foreign policy during the early Cold War.
- The ideas presented became foundational for the doctrine of containment, leading to U.S. interventions in various international conflicts to counter Soviet influence.
- Kennan’s insights contributed to the ideological framework that defined East-West relations throughout the Cold War and influenced U.S. responses to global developments for decades.
10
Q
NATO and the Warsaw Pact
A
- NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was established in 1949 as a military alliance for collective defense against the threat posed by the Soviet Union.
- In response, the Warsaw Pact was formed in 1955 by the USSR and its Eastern European allies, institutionalizing the division of Europe into two opposing military blocs.
- This dual alliance system intensified the Cold War tensions, shaping military strategies and contributing to a climate of mutual distrust between the East and West.
- Both organizations played significant roles in numerous Cold War conflicts and influenced global geopolitics for decades, underscoring the ideological divide between communism and democracy.
11
Q
The Marshall Plan
A
- Launched in 1948, Harry Truman launched the Marshall Plan to provide over $12 billion in economic aid to help rebuild Western European economies after World War II.
- The plan aimed to prevent the spread of Soviet communism by stabilizing these nations economically and fostering US-style consumer-capitalism
- The Soviet Union viewed the Marshall Plan as an attempt to undermine its influence in Eastern Europe, leading to increased tensions and the establishment of its own economic system in the region.
- The success of the Marshall Plan contributed to the economic recovery of Western Europe and laid the foundation for future transatlantic alliances.
12
Q
The Korean War
A
- The Korean War (1950-1953) began when communist Kim Il Sung of North Korea, supported by China and the Soviet Union, invaded South Korea, prompting a U.S.-led UN intervention to defend the South.
- The war exemplified the global reach of the Cold War, as it was one of the first armed conflicts where the U.S. engaged directly against communist forces backed by the USSR in the ‘third world’
- The conflict resulted in a military stalemate and an armistice, leaving the Korean Peninsula divided and demonstrating the limitations of U.S. containment policy.
- The war deepened the divide between East and West and heightened Cold War tensions, with both sides reinforcing their military presence in the region.
13
Q
The “Thaw”
A
- The “Thaw” refers to a period of relative liberalization in the Soviet Union following Stalin’s death in 1953 and lasting through the late 1950s and early 1960s under Nikita Khrushchev.
- Gulag prsoners and deported ethnic groups were allowed to return home and retain their rights
- This era was marked by a relaxation of censorship, cultural openness, and some economic reforms, leading to a temporary easing of tensions with the West.
- Khrushchev’s leadership promoted the idea of peaceful coexistence, aiming to reduce hostilities and foster negotiation between capitalist and communist nations.
- Despite the liberalization, dissent was still met with repression, and the later events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis showed the persistent volatility in U.S.-Soviet relations.
14
Q
Stilyagi
A
- Stilyagi were a group of Soviet youth in the 1950s who embraced Western fashion, jazz music, and lifestyles, symbolizing a cultural push against the repressive norms of the Stalinist regime.
- Their subculture represented a form of resistance to the state’s austere and uniform cultural policies, highlighting the influence of Western culture during the Cold War.
- Stilyagi faced significant backlash and persecution from authorities, reflecting the tensions between progressive youth and an authoritarian state.
- Their existence illustrated the complexities of Soviet society, as the government struggled to control cultural expression while facing the appeal of the West.
15
Q
The Space Race
A
- The Space Race was a competition between the U.S. and the USSR during the Cold War to achieve significant milestones in space exploration, beginning in the late 1950s and continuing into the 1970s.
- Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957 (the first artificial satellite)
- U.S. landing on the moon in 1969.
- Soviets sent first manned craft into outer space (Yurii Gagrin)
- This rivalry represented technological and ideological competition, symbolizing the broader struggle between capitalism and communism and enhancing national prestige.
- The Space Race spurred advancements in science and technology, influencing education and industry on both sides and creating a legacy that continues to impact space exploration today.
16
Q
Khrushchev-Nixon “Kitchen Debate” (1959)
A
- The “Kitchen Debate” occurred during a 1959 exhibition of American consumer goods in Moscow where U.S. Vice President Nixon and Soviet Premier Khrushchev engaged in an impromptu debate.
- Their exchange highlighted the ideological competition between capitalism and communism, showcasing technological and lifestyle differences between the two superpowers.
- The debate illustrated the domestic and international legitimacy each leader sought to project, reflecting their respective nations’ values and innovations.
- It symbolized the ongoing friction and dialogue during the Cold War, where cultural exchanges often took place amid political tensions.
17
Q
The Berlin Wall
A
- The Berlin Wall was constructed in 1961 by East Germany to prevent East Berliners from fleeing to West Berlin and symbolized the physical and ideological divide between East and West during the Cold War.
- Its erection marked a significant escalation in East-West tensions, as it served not only as a barrier but also as a stark representation of the failure of communism to provide freedom.
- The Wall became a focal point for both propaganda and protests, with numerous attempts to escape symbolizing the desire for freedom and the human cost of political repression.
- Its fall in 1989 at the hands of German protesters became an iconic moment that symbolized the end of the Cold War and the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe.
18
Q
The Cuban Missile Crisis
A
- The Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 was a 13-day confrontation between the U.S. and the USSR over Soviet missiles stationed in Cuba, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war.
- It was a pivotal moment in Cold War history, highlighting the dangers of nuclear brinkmanship and the severe consequences of U.S.-Soviet tensions.
- The resolution of the crisis involved backdoor negotiations, including the U.S. agreeing to remove missiles from Turkey in exchange for the Soviet withdrawal from Cuba, establishing a precedent for future diplomatic communications.
- The crisis underscored the necessity for improved communication between the superpowers, leading to the establishment of the Moscow-Washington hotline to prevent future misunderstandings.
19
Q
The Prague Spring
A
- The Prague Spring of 1968 was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia, where reformist leader Alexander Dubček attempted to implement democratic socialism, promoting greater freedoms and reforms (“socialism with a human face”)
- This movement was seen as a threat to Soviet satellites by Soviet leadership, leading to the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, crushing the reforms and reasserting Soviet control over Eastern Europe.
- The events highlighted the limitations of Soviet tolerance for reform within its sphere of influence and the objective of maintaining a strict ideological and political alignment.
- The Prague Spring became a symbol of the struggle for freedom in Eastern Europe, inspiring future dissents against Soviet regimes and contributing to the eventual fall of communism in the late 1980s.
20
Q
The “Brezhnev Doctrine”
A
- The “Brezhnev Doctrine,” articulated in 1968, asserted that the Soviet Union had the right to intervene in the affairs of socialist countries to maintain communist rule, justifying the invasion of Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring.
- This doctrine reinforced the USSR’s commitment to protecting its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, exemplifying the inflexibility of Soviet policy during the Cold War.
- It heightened tensions with the West, as it signaled a willingness to use military force to maintain communist regimes, contributing to the ideological conflict that characterized the era.
- The doctrine also created resentment within Eastern European countries, fueling dissident movements that sought greater autonomy and reform.
21
Q
Détente
A
- Détente refers to the period of eased tensions and improved relations between the U.S. and the USSR during the late 1960s through the 1970s, characterized by diplomatic engagement and arms control agreements such as the SALT treaties.
- This approach sought to avoid direct military confrontation while allowing both superpowers to focus on domestic issues and economic challenges.
- Détente faced criticism from hardliners in both countries, particularly when conflicts arose (e.g., Soviet involvement in Afghanistan), which led to a resurgence of Cold War tensions.
- The era illustrated the complexities of U.S.-Soviet relations, as both sides navigated competition and cooperation amidst an ongoing ideological rivalry.
22
Q
Andrei Sakharov/ Dissident movement
A
- Andrei Sakharov was a prominent Soviet physicist who had helped create the atomic bomb. He became a vocal opponent of nuclear proliferation and human rights activist who became a leading voice for dissent in the USSR, advocating for civil liberties and political reform during the 1960s and 1970s.
- Won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975, but was exiled to the city of Gorky for his protest against the invasion of Afghanistan
- Sakharov’s dissent, along with that of others, highlighted the growing opposition to the restrictive policies of the Soviet government and the demand for greater freedoms within the country.
- For example, Solzhenitsyn Gulag Archipelago raised awareness of the brutal conditions of Soviet gulags
- The dissident movement included intellectuals, artists, and activists who challenged the regime, often facing persecution, imprisonment, or exile, symbolizing the struggle against oppression.
- Sakharov’s international recognition and activism drew Western attention to human rights abuses in the Soviet Union, contributing to diplomatic pressure on the USSR from the West.
23
Q
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
A
- The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 aimed to support a communist government facing resistance from Islamic insurgents, marking a significant escalation of Cold War tensions.
- This intervention was viewed by the U.S. and its allies as a direct challenge to Western interests and a violation of international norms, prompting the U.S. to respond with sanctions and support for the mujahideen.
- The war became a costly and protracted conflict for the USSR, draining resources and leading to significant domestic discontent, ultimately contributing to the decline of the Soviet Union.
- The invasion further intensified the arms race and derailed the détente period, leading to a renewed focus on military preparedness in the United States.
24
Q
Gorbachev’s “New Thinking” in foreign policy
A
- Gorbachev was relatively young and had trained in law, unlike his technocrat predecessors
- Mikhail Gorbachev’s “New Thinking,” introduced in the late 1980s, signified a shift in Soviet foreign policy aimed at reducing global tensions and promoting cooperation with Western nations.
- This approach emphasized diplomacy, arms reduction, and the recognition of economic interdependence, moving away from confrontational Cold War attitudes.
- Gorbachev’s initiatives, such as significant arms control agreements and efforts to withdrawal from Afghanistan, led to a thaw in U.S.-Soviet relations and weakened the ideological barriers between the two blocs.
- The “New Thinking” also facilitated political reforms within the USSR and encouraged dissident movements in Eastern Europe, ultimately contributing to the collapse of communist regimes.
- Gorbachev was unwilling to use force to maintain control of European satellite states with pro-Soviet leaders, unlike Brezhnev
25
Q
Perestroika and Glasnost’
A
- Perestroika (“restructuring”) was Gorbachev’s campaign for economic reform to revitalize the Soviet economy through decentralization and limited market mechanisms, initiated in the 1980s.
- Glasnost’ (“openness”) aimed to increase transparency and freedom of expression, allowing for greater public discussion of political and social issues within the USSR.
- State control of media decreased after Chernobyl (1986), which most Soviets had found out about via Western media
- Both policies were intended to address economic stagnation and political oppression; however, they inadvertently fueled dissent and demands for more radical reforms, undermining faith in the Soviet system
- Glasnost allowed popular dissatisfaction and national self-determination to grow stronger, leading to the breakup of the Soviet Union
- The implementation of perestroika and glasnost’ changed the dynamics of control in the Soviet Union and significantly impacted relations with the West, fostering more constructive dialogue.
26
Q
Reykjavik Summit (Reagan & Gorbachev, Oct. 1986)
A
- The Reykjavik Summit was a crucial meeting between U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, focusing on nuclear disarmament and arms control.
- Although the summit did not result in a formal agreement, the discussions laid the groundwork for subsequent treaties, signaling a willingness to address superpower tensions.
- The summit showcased the potential for U.S.-Soviet cooperation despite the ongoing Cold War and reflected the changes brought about by Gorbachev’s reformist policies.
- It symbolized the thawing of relations that characterized the second half of the 1980s, ultimately contributing to the end of the Cold War.
27
Q
1989 Eastern European revolutions
A
- The 1989 Eastern European revolutions were a series of peaceful uprisings that led to the fall of communist regimes across the region, including notable events in Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary.
- These revolutions were fueled by a combination of economic dissatisfaction, the influence of Gorbachev’s reforms, and growing demands for political freedoms and civil rights.
- The peaceful transitions marked a significant turning point in the Cold War, effectively dismantling the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe.
- The revolutions inspired movements for democracy and reform and put immense pressure on the Soviet leadership, culminating in the eventual dissolution of the USSR.
28
Q
August 1991 coup attempt
A
- The August 1991 coup attempt was an unsuccessful effort by hardline communist leaders to seize control of the Soviet government and reverse Gorbachev’s reforms amid rising public discontent and nationalist movements.
- Gorbachev had signed a new union treaty after demands for greater autonomy from republics
- The coup ultimately failed due to mass public opposition and the decisive actions of Russian President Boris Yeltsin, who galvanized support against the coup plotters and stood on a tank to rally support against the coup
- Yeltsin became a popular hero and dissolved the Communist Party, forming the Commonwealth of Independent States soonafter
- This event marked a critical moment in Russian history, leading to increased calls for sovereignty and a shift towards more democratic governance.
29
Q
The end of the Soviet Union (Dec. 1991)
A
- The end of the Soviet Union formally occurred on December 26, 1991, following a period of economic turmoil, political unrest, and the rise of independence movements among its constituent republics.
- The dissolution signified the collapse of one of the world’s two superpowers, fundamentally altering global geopolitical dynamics and marking the end of the Cold War.
- It resulted in the establishment of 15 independent republics, most notably Russia, which faced significant challenges in transitioning from a command economy to a market-oriented system.
- The end of the Soviet Union also reshaped Russian relations with the West, leading to a period of optimism and cooperation, although subsequent developments would complicate those relationships
30
Q
Privatization and the “Oligarchs”
A
- Privatization in the 1990s involved the transfer of state-owned assets to private ownership, leading to the rise of a wealthy class known as “oligarchs” who amassed significant power and influence over the economy and politics.
- This rapid transition often resulted in corruption and economic disparity, creating a small elite while many Russians experienced economic hardship during the turbulent post-Soviet transition.
- The oligarchs became crucial players in the political landscape, establishing relationships with both domestic and Western powers, which influenced Russian economic policies and reform efforts.
- The backlash against the oligarchs became a tool for political leaders, including Vladimir Putin, who sought to consolidate power by reducing their influence.
31
Q
The 1st Chechen War (1994-96)
A
- The First Chechen War began in 1994 when Russia attempted to regain control over Chechnya, which sought independence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
- Characterized by brutal fighting and significant civilian casualties, the conflict highlighted the challenges of maintaining territorial integrity and dealing with separatist movements.
- The war resulted in a peace treaty in 1996, but it did not resolve underlying tensions, leading to further instability in the region and foreshadowing the resurgence of conflict in subsequent years.
- Internationally, the war garnered criticism and raised concerns about human rights abuses, impacting Russia’s image in the West.
32
Q
The 1996 Russian presidential election
A
- The 1996 presidential election in Russia, which saw Boris Yeltsin re-elected, was marked by significant corruption and allegations of manipulation, with extensive financial and media support from oligarchs.
- The election highlighted the transition to a more democratic political system, albeit marred by electoral irregularities, and signaled the challenges of building democratic institutions in the post-Soviet landscape.
- Yeltsin’s victory was perceived as a victory for market reforms and the West, but it also deepened divisions in Russian society and dissatisfaction with the economic situation.
- The election results were seen as crucial for the continuation of Western engagement with Russia during the 1990s, as many in the West viewed Yeltsin as a partner in promoting democracy.
33
Q
1998 Russian economic crisis
A
- The Russian economic crisis of 1998 was triggered by declining oil prices, a large public debt, and rampant inflation, leading the government to default on its debt and devalue the ruble.
- The crisis resulted in severe economic hardship for ordinary Russians, leading to increased poverty and social unrest, while undermining confidence in the reforms initiated after the Soviet Union’s collapse.
- The economic turmoil prompted a shift in political power dynamics, paving the way for Vladimir Putin’s rise as a stabilizing leader amid the chaos.
- The crisis also impacted Russian relations with the West, as the IMF and other international bodies sought to provide assistance, which highlighted the vulnerabilities of the Russian economy.
34
Q
Yeltsin resigns (Dec. 1999)
A
- Boris Yeltsin announced his resignation on December 31, 1999, unexpectedly transferring power to then-Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, who became the acting president.
- Yeltsin’s resignation marked the formal end of his turbulent presidency, characterized by economic challenges and political instability, and was significant in Russia’s post-Soviet transition.
- The sudden leadership change signified a shift toward a more centralized and authoritative style of governance, as Putin sought to restore stability and enhance Russia’s state power.
- Yeltsin’s legacy remains contentious, as he is viewed both as a reformer who opened Russia to the West and as a leader whose policies contributed to economic disarray and social fragmentation.
35
Q
NATO expansion (1990s-2000s)
A
- NATO expansion refers to the alliance’s enlargement during the late 1990s and early 2000s, incorporating several Eastern European countries that were formerly part of the Soviet sphere of influence, including Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic.
- This action was perceived by Russia as a direct threat to its security and sphere of influence, straining relations between Russia and the West as it reinforced the East-West divide.
- Despite arguments supporting NATO’s promotion of stability and democracy, Russian leaders, including Putin, have consistently voiced opposition to the alliance’s eastward growth, citing historical grievances.
- The expansion contributed to the deterioration of U.S.-Russia relations, with fears of encirclement serving as a justification for a more assertive Russian foreign policy.
36
Q
U.S., Russia, and the “War on Terror”
A
- Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the U.S. sought cooperation with Russia in the “War on Terror,” as both countries recognized Islamic extremism as a mutual threat.
- Russia initially supported the U.S. in Afghanistan, viewing it as an opportunity to strengthen bilateral relations and gain Western recognition of its own security concerns.
- However, this cooperation was complicated by ongoing tensions over NATO expansion, U.S. missile defense initiatives, and differing approaches to global security, causing eventual friction.
- The evolving dynamics highlighted the complexities of U.S.-Russian relations, as counterterrorism collaboration was often overshadowed by lingering geopolitical rivalries.
37
Q
2008 Russo-Georgian war
A
- The 2008 Russo-Georgian War was a conflict between Russia and Georgia over the South Ossetia region, which escalated after Georgia launched an attack to regain control over the breakaway territory.
- Russia intervened militarily, citing the protection of Russian citizens in South Ossetia, leading to a swift and decisive victory for Russian forces.
- The war significantly worsened relations between Russia and the West, as it drew international condemnation and raised questions about Russia’s intentions in the post-Soviet space.
- The conflict underscored Russia’s willingness to use military force to protect its interests in former Soviet territories, signaling a more assertive foreign policy under Putin.
38
Q
Dmitry Medvedev and Obama “reset”
A
- Dmitry Medvedev, who served as President of Russia from 2008 to 2012, sought to improve relations with the West, coinciding with U.S. President Barack Obama’s “reset” policy aimed at overcoming past tensions between the two countries.
- The reset led to significant agreements on nuclear arms reductions, exemplified by the New START treaty, and increased cooperation on issues such as counterterrorism and non-proliferation.
- However, the reset faced challenges due to diverging interests in areas like the conflict in Syria and NATO expansion, ultimately revealing the limits of improving U.S.-Russia relations.
- The initial optimism of the reset was overshadowed by rising tensions in subsequent years, particularly with the deterioration of U.S.-Russia relations following the annexation of Crimea and the Ukrainian crisis.
39
Q
Pussy Riot
A
- Pussy Riot is a feminist punk rock group known for its provocative performances and protests against the Russian government, particularly in relation to issues of human rights and gender equality.
- Formed in 2011, the group gained international notoriety after a performance in Moscow’s Cathedral of Christ the Savior in 2012, which led to the arrest and imprisonment of several members.
- Their trial and subsequent conviction were met with global outrage, symbolizing the repression of dissent and artistic expression in Russia under Putin’s regime.
- Pussy Riot’s activism sparked discussions on women’s rights, political dissent, and freedom of expression, contributing to heightened scrutiny of Russia’s domestic policies.
40
Q
Alexei Navalny
A
- Alexei Navalny is a prominent Russian opposition leader and anti-corruption activist known for his critical stance against the Putin administration, advocating for political reform and transparency.
- His activities include investigating high-level corruption and organizing protests, which have garnered significant domestic and international support, positioning him as a key figure in the opposition movement.
- Navalny has faced numerous legal challenges, including imprisonment and poisoning, with many viewing these actions as politically motivated attempts to suppress dissent.
- His efforts have highlighted the struggle for democracy in Russia, raising awareness about human rights violations and the broader implications of authoritarian governance.
41
Q
Ukrainian “Euromaidan revolution” (Feb. 2014)
A
- The Euromaidan Revolution was a series of protests in Ukraine that began in November 2013 over the government’s decision to suspend an association agreement with the European Union, culminating in February 2014 with the ousting of President Yanukovych.
- The movement reflected broader desires for political reform, closer ties to the West, and resistance against corruption, which resonated with many Ukrainians frustrated by the government’s ties to Russia.
- The revolution prompted a significant geopolitical realignment, inciting Russia to react aggressively in Ukraine, including the annexation of Crimea and support for separatist movements in Eastern Ukraine.
- The Euromaidan revolution marked a turning point in Ukraine’s relations with Russia and the West, intensifying the ongoing conflict and reshaping the political landscape in the region.
42
Q
Russian annexation of Crimea (2014)
A
- In March 2014, following the Euromaidan Revolution, Russia annexed Crimea, a move widely condemned by Ukraine and the international community as a violation of international law.
- The annexation was justified by Russia on the grounds of protecting Russian-speaking populations and historical claims to the territory, but it was met with sanctions and geopolitical isolation from the West.
- The event marked the beginning of a new phase in Russia-West relations, significantly severing ties and leading to increased tensions and military confrontations in Eastern Europe.
- The Crimea situation revitalized NATO’s focus on collective defense and resulted in increased military presence in Eastern Europe to deter further Russian aggression.
43
Q
“Active Measures” campaign (in 2016 U.S. Election)
A
- “Active Measures” refers to a set of covert operations, including disinformation, propaganda, and electoral interference, utilized by Russia to influence political outcomes and public opinion in foreign countries.
- During the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Russian intelligence conducted a multifaceted campaign to sow discord, undermine trust in democratic institutions, and support specific candidates.
- The revelations of these activities led to heightened scrutiny of Russia’s intentions and capabilities, stirring political controversy within the United States and leading to subsequent investigations.
- The campaign underscored the continuing evolution of hybrid warfare and the use of non-traditional tactics to achieve geopolitical goals, significantly impacting U.S.-Russia relations.
44
Q
Volodymyr Zelenskyy
A
- Volodymyr Zelenskyy, elected President of Ukraine in 2019, is a former comedian and political outsider who campaigned on anti-corruption and pro-European Union platforms, reflecting the public’s desire for change following the Euromaidan revolution.
- His presidency has been characterized by an ongoing struggle against Russian aggression, particularly in light of the annexation of Crimea and the conflict in Eastern Ukraine.
- Zelenskyy emerged as a key figure in mobilizing international support for Ukraine amid rising tensions, especially during the events surrounding the Russian invasion in 2022.
- His leadership has emphasized the need for democratic reforms and resilience against external threats, becoming a symbol of Ukrainian resistance and sovereignty.
45
Q
Russian Invasion of Ukraine (Feb. 2022)
A
- The Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 marked a significant escalation of the conflict that began in 2014, as Russia launched a wide-ranging military offensive aimed at toppling the Ukrainian government.
- The invasion was met with widespread condemnation from the international community, resulting in severe economic sanctions against Russia and substantial military and humanitarian support for Ukraine.
- The conflict has led to significant loss of life, displacement of millions, and a humanitarian crisis, reshaping geopolitical alliances and security dynamics in Europe.
- The invasion has revitalized NATO and EU unity, significantly altering public perceptions of Russia and leading to increased military preparedness among Western nations.
