midterm Flashcards
Hemocytoblast, what myeloid n lymphoid produce
stem cell, pluripoten, in bone marrow
MYELOID produces Erythrocytes, monocyte, myelocytes/granulocytes, thrombocytes
LYMPHOID: t & b cells & natural killer cells
erythrocytes (rbc) stages
MYELOID
Proerythroblast, early & late erythroblast, normoblast, reticulocytes (all have nucleus until finally becoming…) ERYTHROCYTES
Monocyte stages
MYELOID
Monoblast, Promonocyte, MONOCYTE
myelocytes/granulocytes (immature wbc)
MYELOID
myeloblast, promyelocytes (eosinophilic, basophilic, neutrophilic), MYELOCYTES (Neutrophils,basophils,eosinophils)
platelets/thrombocytes stages (role in clotting)
MYELOID
megakaryoblast, megakaryocytes n gets fragmented n turned to THROMBOCYTES
T/b/NK cells
LYMPHOID
Lymphoblast, lymphocytes (T/B/NK cells)
Acute, Myelogenous, Lymphocytic leukemia
ACUTE: immature, nonfunctioning (not immunocomepetent:dk what to destroy)
MYELOGENOUS: myeloid stem cell turns cancerous
LYMPHOCYTIC: lymphoid stem cell becomes cancerous
self antigens & nonself antigens + auto immune disease
SELF ANTIGENS:
-present inside us on surface of our cells
-auto immune disease when Ig (antibodies) starts attacking itself
ex) multiple scierosis, diabetes mellitus type 1, graves disease
NONSELF ANTIGENS: foreign, destroys outside
Agglutinogens
specific antigen present on sufurace of cell that determins blood type, containing Glycolipids and glycoproteins
Agglutinins
type of antibody (produced by b lymphocytes) called immunogoblin (igA, igD,igE,igM,igG) that causes red blood cell to clump tg when they detect foriegn antigens
who discoved concept of blood type?
Carl Landsteiner in 1930, 30 types, A,B,AB,O,Rh, NMS, Lewis, Kells, Dufty, Lutheran, Kidd
Rh gets its name from ?
Rh cs seen first in Rhesus monkey
Blood type A, B, AB, O, Rh+ n Rh- means what antigen (on cell) n antibody (floats)
antigen (on cell) n antibody (floats)
A: A,b
B: B,a
AB: A&B, -
O: -, A&B
Rh+: Rh, -
Rh-: -, Rh
o- most univeral (bc rh not present)
What happens when Rh+ n Rh - are tg (& name of disease? + solution (name)
-1st preganacy okay, but second that baby may die (erytrooblastosis fetalis)
- Rhogam (gives antibodies against d to mother) 26 weeks and 72 hrs after birth
when does clumping happen in bloodtypes & anti serum A has what antibodies? when does clumping not occur?
-A antibodies
-recipiant must not have antibodies againt donor but its safe the other way around
ANTIGENS & ANTIBODIES CANNOT MATCH (Agglutination)
-no clumping when no antigen so O type
hemostaisis stages
5-8 mins
STAGE 1: prothrombinase/prothrombin ->PF3 (for activation) ->Promthrombinase (active)
STAGE 2: Prothrombin->(using Promthrombinase (active)) ->Thrombin
STAGE 3: Fibrinogen (globular)->(using Thrombin) ->Fibrin (which traps blood cells, creating SOFT clot)
HARD clot (cross linking of fibrin chains) made by FIBRIN STABILIZING FACTOR (aka lanki-lorand factor)
hemophila
disorder where blood doesnt clot
14 Clotting factors
Foolish People Try Climbing Long Slopes After Christmas Some People Have Fallen.”
Foolish = Factor I (Fibrinogen)
People = Factor II (Prothrombin)
Try = Factor III (Tissue factor, also called Thromboplastin)
Climbing = Factor IV (Calcium, or Ca²⁺)
Long = Factor V (Proaccelerin)
Slopes = Factor VII (Proconvertin)
After = Factor VIII (Anti-hemophilic factor)
Christmas = Factor IX (Christmas factor)
Some = Factor X (Stuart-Prower factor)
People = Factor XI (Plasma thromboplastin antecedent)
Have = Factor XII (Hageman factor)
Fallen = Factor XIII (Fibrin-stabilizing factor) - makes hard clot
14th factor is = pf3
if factor 8 in clotting is missing, this person has…
hemophila (blood doesnt clot proberly
intrinsic pathway
intravascular clotting (clotting activated by internal trama
12, 11, 9, 8 (10, 2, 1)
extrinsic pathway
clotting activated by external trama
7, 3 (10,2,1)
What is used for clot to retract?
thrombosthenin used for clot to shrink
what is used for clot dissolution? & what can be given to patients
- Plasminogen becomes active to plasmin
2.streptokinase used to dissolve clot
procoagulants
heat, rough surface, thromboxane a2 (vasoconstriction & platelet aggregation) ca2+, vit.k
anticoagulants
cold, smooth surface, prostacyclin (in vasodilation that prevent platelet agg, asprin helps), heparin (basophils)
heart is located in
heart is located in the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity between the two lungs superior to the diaphragm
The heart is surrounded by the
pericardium, which forms a protective sac
( serous n fibrous pericardium)
fibrous pericardium
leathery fibrous connective tissue, and anchors the heart to the diaphragm
serous pericardium made up of
viseral layer (aka epicardium), pericardial cavity (peridcardial fluid-shock absorber), pariental pericardium
heart wall
Endocardium: The innermost layer (simple
squamous epithelium)
Myocardium:
-Thick, middle layer of the heart.
-Made of cardiac muscle tissue:
-Striated & branched (like skeletal muscle but involuntary).
-Not under conscious control (works automatically).
-Electrically coupled via gap junctions & desmosomes (so the entire ventricle contracts at the same time).
-Aerobic (requires a lot of oxygen, has many mitochondria, and doesn’t fatigue easily).
-Spiral arrangement (helps squeeze blood out efficiently).
Epicardium: The outermost layer (visceral layer of the pericardium.)
pericarditis
Excess of fluid in the pericardial cavity and inflammation of serous pericardial
great vessels
inferior vena cava, superior vena cava, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary veins, and aorta.
The deoxygenated venous blood is collected by
coronary veins: the anterior (goes straight to right atrium & small and great cardiac veins, which drain into the coronary sinus that opens into the right atrium
atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is the buildup of fatty deposits (plaque) in the arteries
HOW MUch blood % n how much? higher when?
8%, 5-6 liters in a minute, higher in BMR
14 Clotting factors
Foolish People Try Climbing Long Slopes After Christmas Some People Have Fallen.”
Foolish = Factor I (Fibrinogen)
People = Factor II (Prothrombin)
Try = Factor III (Tissue factor, also called Thromboplastin)
Climbing = Factor IV (Calcium, or Ca²⁺)
Long = Factor V (Proaccelerin)
Slopes = Factor VII (Proconvertin)
After = Factor VIII (Anti-hemophilic factor)
Christmas = Factor IX (Christmas factor)
Some = Factor X (Stuart-Prower factor)
People = Factor XI (Plasma thromboplastin antecedent)
Have = Factor XII (Hageman factor)
Fallen = Factor XIII (Fibrin-stabilizing factor) - makes hard clot
14th factor is = pf3
2 types of immune response
INNATE: nonspecific
ADAPTIVE: humoral = use b cells to make anti body & cell mediated: t cells destroy the infected cells
Agglutinins
type of antibody (produced by b lymphocytes) called immunogoblin (igA, igD,igE,igM,igG) used to identify blood type
Agglutinogens
specific antigen present on sufurace of cell that determins blood type, containing Glycolipids and glycoproteins
Anemia (low rbc count)
Hemorrhagic anemia – Blood loss causes low red blood cell (RBC) count.
Hemolytic anemia – RBCs break down too early.
Aplastic anemia – Bone marrow fails to make enough RBCs.
Erythroblastic – Abnormal, immature RBCs in the blood.
Macrocytic – RBCs are larger than normal, often due to vitamin B12 or folate deficiency.
anticoagulants
cold, smooth surface, prostacyclin (in vasodilation that prevent platelet agg, asprin helps), heparin (basophils), oxalates, citrate, EGTA & EDTA
Aorta
- exits the left ventricle and delivers oxygenated arterial blood to the head region and rest of body
Aplastic anemia
no rbc production in bone marrow bc of radiation, epstein-barr virus, arsenic poisoning
Artenial blood:
Both venous & artenial blood are Alkaline:
Alkaline - 7.45 (breath in O2 into blood to tissues for energy prod in cell) for arteries
Arteries
carry blood away from heart
Arteriosclerosis
Calcification (calcium deposit) so the/any blood vessel becomes hard, no expansion.] when blood comes so blood pressure rises, narrow now so less blood flows
(normally blood is supposed to be soft expand and contract with each heartbeat to help move blood throughout the body.)
Atherosclerosis
Plaque formation leads to narrowing of blood vessels (stenosis).
-type: arteriosclerosis
-reduced blood flow to tissues, often resulting from atherosclerosis: ischemia
Base and Apex location of the heart
Base: top of the heart
Apex: bottom of the heart
Basophils (1%) + Histamine & heparin
course blue
produces Histamine (causes allergic reaction, promote inflamtation) & heparin (natural anticoalagent)
blood comes and leaves from the
top
blood flows during diastole which
a phase where muscle relaxes and chambers fill with blood (The lowest pressure during ventricular diastole (when heart is resting bw beats & reaches 0)
Blood type A, B, AB, O, Rh+ n Rh- means what antigen (on cell) n antibody (floats)
antigen (on cell) n antibody (floats)
A: A,b
B: B,a
AB: A&B, -
O: -, A&B
Rh+: Rh, -
Rh-: -, Rh
o- most univeral (bc rh not present)
caprillies
site of substance exchange between the blood and body cells
Cardiac Output
stroke volume: 70ml/beat
heart rate: 70beat/min
5 liters/min
Cardiac Tamponade
excess fluid in thoradic cavity, medical emergency (gunshot, stab wound) - too much fluid in heart will result in it not being able to expand and compresses the heart.
Composition in blood
55% plasma & 45% formed elements, Hematocrit (47% male, 42% fem) - rise in Polycythemia, leukocytes 1% - rise in leukemia
congestive heart failure
when one side of the heart fails to pump blood
-blood will back up
-both sides of heart pump same amount of blood
Coronary Circulation
hearts own body supply (1/20th cardiac output goes to heart)
origin: from base of aorta –> oxygenated blood
dextrocardia
when heart points to right side instead of left
Double Circulation System
heart acts as a double pump, ensuring blood passes through it twice before reaching the same organ again ensuring it gets oxygenated
Eosinophils & Eosinophila
red graules
engulf pathogens, reduce inflamation and fight alergies, has receptors for antibodies, IgE
Eosinophila=high eos meaning person has infection
Erythroblastic or macrocytic anemia
presence of immature nucleated rbc so not enough space for hemogoblin
Erythrocyte formation
Hemopoiesis occurs in bone marrow
hypoxia: not enough oxygen in tissue
Erythrocytes
no nucleus or mitocondria so depend on glucose for energy (glycolysis) - 120 day life span. flat like donut w/o hole.
erythrocytes breakdown
Erythroclasia in spleen. Hb seperates to Heme & Globlin (protein chains -> AA
extrinsic pathway
clotting activated by external trama
7, 3 (10,2,1)
Fibrous Pericardium
anchors the heart, protective, tough, leather
foramen ovale ->
hole in the heart that allows blood to flow from the right atrium to the left atrium in a fetus. This helps bypass the lungs before birth. After birth, the hole usually closes.
formed elements: Erythrocytes and Leukocytes percentage
erythrocytes 99
leukocytes 1
functions of blood:
transport, regulation, protection, hemostasis
Great Vessels
Inferior (body) and superior vena cava (head): Bring used (deoxygenated) blood from the body to the right atrium.
Pulmonary trunk: Sends used blood from the right ventricle to the lungs to get oxygen.
Pulmonary veins/arties : Bring oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
Aorta: Sends oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body.
Hb myoglobin
single peptide chain
stores & transport oxy in muscle cells for muscle use
@ PO2, oxy take up for easily (can pick up if @ Po2
153 AA
Hb tetrameric
4 unit/ peptide chains
iron in the middle n each carries one so carries 4 oxygen
hbA (normal form, 98%)
-2 alpha - 141 aa, 2 beta 146 aa
hbF (2%) in blood during preg
-2 alph, 2 gamma
hbA in … chain @ position 6 … is normal & soluble wheareas … is abnormal, insoluble & crystaliezed causes sickle cell
hbA in beta chain @ position 6 Glutamic acid is normal & soluble wheareas valine is abnormal, insoluble & crystaliezed causes sickle cell
hemocrit
percentage of red blood cells (RBCs) in a volume of blood.
HbA1c
Glycated Hb
<5.7 = normal
6.4% = prediabetic
> 6.5 = diabetic
Hemocytoblast, what myeloid n lymphoid produce
stem cell, pluripoten, in bone marrow
MYELOID produces Erythrocytes, monocyte, myelocytes/granulocytes, thrombocytes
LYMPHOID: t & b cells & natural killer cells
Hemoglobin
(protein in RBCs)
transport for o2 & co2
uses iron
Hb tetrameric 4 peptide chains mb myoglobin single unit
hemolytic anemia
rbc breakdown cs of mis-matched blood transfusion, rbc attack itself
hemophila
disorder where blood doesnt clot caused by factor 8 missing
hemorrhagic anemia
blood loss from injury/surgery
hemostaisis stages
blood clotting
5-8 mins
STAGE 1: prothrombinase/prothrombin ->PF3 (for activation) ->Promthrombinase (active)
STAGE 2: Prothrombin->(using Promthrombinase (active)) ->Thrombin
STAGE 3: Fibrinogen (globular)->(using Thrombin) ->Fibrin (which traps blood cells, creating SOFT clot)
HARD clot (cross linking of fibrin chains) made by FIBRIN STABILIZING FACTOR (aka lanki-lorand factor)
Hemostasis (3 thrombo…)
…plastin - clots blood when vessel is injured
…sthenin - helps platelet squeeze tg & make stronger clots
…xane A2 - platelet aggregation & vasoconstriction + type of prostaglandin
plastin starts it, thenin strengthens it, A2 sticks tg n narrows vessels
How many types of leukocytes are there?
5
Inferior/Superior Vena Cava
The Inferior/Superior Vena Cava bring deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium.
From the right atrium, blood moves to the right ventricle, then to the lungs via the pulmonary trunk.
After the blood gets oxygen in the lungs, the right/left pulmonary veins bring the oxygenated blood back to the left atrium.
intrinsic pathway
intravascular clotting (clotting activated by internal trama
12, 11, 9, 8 (10, 2, 1)
Ischemia
can result from atherosclerosis
Reduced blood flow causes:
Myocardial Infarction (heart muscle dies)
Cardiac Arrest (electrical dysfunction in the heart)
Jaudince from…. in Heme breakdown which is … & toxic vs …..which is not toxic. use blood light for cure
Jaudince from Bilirubin in Heme breakdown which is free/indirect/insoluble & toxic vs direct/albumin bound which is not toxic. use blood light for cure
Left Coronary Artery
Anterior Interventricular Artery (LAD): Supplies the front of the left ventricle and septum.
Circumflex Artery (LCX): Supplies the left atrium and the side/back of the left ventricle.
leukocrit
(the percentage of blood volume made up of white blood cells)
Lymphocytes (20-40%)
T-cells (kill pathogen directly), B cells (produce antibodies for targeted immune responses), Natural Killer cells (kill infected or abnormal cells, aka cancer cells, directly as part of the innate immune system)
NOT PHAGTOPHIC
neutrophils & diapedesis
diapedesis: neutrophils move from blood to tissue in infection, releasing free radicals that eat bacterial but die themselves, also (phagocytic)
osmoregulation: blood makeup & ADH & Aldosterone
water is 60% of body weight, 40% is ICF, 20% is ECF (15% interstitial fluid, 5% plasma (300 mOsmols/L)
ADH= prevent water loss depending on situation
blood dilute? 280, ADH absent to lose h2o = lots of pee
concentrate? 320, ADH produced to conserve h2o= less pee
Aldosterone: regulate h2o by Na+ retention by osmosis
Pericardial cavity
-space bw parietal pericardium (outer) and visceral layer (epicardium, inner)
-filled with pericardial fluid, serving as shock absorber, keeps heart lubricated, protects against mechanical injuries (friction, impact)
Pericarditis & pericardial cavity & cardiac effusion
the inflammation of the pericardium in cavit -(can make lung tumors)
This inflammation can lead to fluid buildup in the pericardial cavity, a condition known as cardiac effusion.
pericardium
double walled pericardial sac is made up of the fibrous pericardium and the outer parietal pericadium of the serous pericardium, forming a protective structure around the heart.
pernicious anemia & iron deficiency
-low hemoglobin
Pernicious Anemia: Caused by a lack of vitamin B12, leading to problems with red blood cell production.
Iron-deficiency Anemia: Caused by a lack of iron, leading to insufficient hemoglobin and oxygen in the blood.
Plasma composition
Water 91%, Proteins 7% (albumins 58%, globulins 37%, FIBRINOGEN (clotting protein) 4%, other substance 1% (Na+,k+,Cl-,Ca2+, GLucose, FFA, Amino Acids, Non-protein nitrogen (Urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine)
Plasma is the same as Serum, but the only difference is Plasma clots because it contains …..
Plasma is the same as Serum, but the only difference is Plasma clots because it contains fibrinogen
Platelets
aka thrombocytes
-fragments of megakaryocyte
-forms the clot (fibrogin creates trap for clot)
procoagulants
heat, rough surface, thromboxane a2 (vasoconstriction & platelet aggregation) ca2+, vit.k
Pulmonary Circulation (Right Side)
blood travels from the heart to the lungs –> to the heart for oxygenation
- lesser circulation
- 12 secs
- 5 liters of blood (cardiac output)
- BP 20/12mmHg
Pulmonary Trunk
- exits the right ventricle (what u will see when looking straight on), divides into right/left pulmonary arteries
- deliver deoxygenated venous blood to the lungs for oxygenation
Right Coronary Artery (4 coranaries in coronary circulation)
Marginal Artery: Runs along the right edge of the heart, supplying the right ventricle.
Posterior Interventricular Artery (PDA): Runs in the back (posterior) groove between the ventricles, supplying both ventricles’ back portions.
Right vs Left Side of the heart
Right side: deoxygenated blood
Left Side: oxygenated blood
sickle cell anemia
- abnormal (hemoglobin) b-chain
-@ position there is valine (instead of glutamic acid)
-hemolysis (process of red blood cell destruction) occurs
Systemic Circulation (Left Side)
blood moves from the heart to body /head –> to the heart distributing oxygen
- greater circulation
- 1 min
- BP 120/80mmHg
thalassemia
-abnormal hemoglobin
-major(mediteranean)/minor (asian) depend on how many bad genes: 4 genes
Alpha Thalassemia (Low or Missing Alpha Chains)
Beta Thalassemia (Low or Missing Beta Chains)
The Atrium(s) are separated by
interatrial septum
The Ventricle(s) are separated by
interventricular septum
Thrombocytopenia
penia =low count
low platelets so make harder for blood to clot, excessive bleeding or bruising
thrombocytopenia purpura
low levels of platelets in the blood, bruising easy
thrombus
clot that is free flowing and can block blood vessel
coronary thrombosis = heart attack
cerebral thrombosis = stroke -> paralyisis
vasoconstriction
heat is conserved (prevent heat loss) ex) shivering
& non-shiverying thermogenesis (part to sympathetic nervous system) = brown fat & alpha 1 receptor burn making heat
vasodilation
heat is allowed to dissipate from the skin (when hot), & non-shiverying thermogenesis = brown fat & beta 2 receptors
Veins
carry blood toward the heart
Venous blood from the heart muscle is collected by veins into the coronary sinus, which then opens into the right atrium.
coronary sinus is a large vein that collects deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle (myocardium) and returns it to the right atrium of the heart.
Venous blood:
Acidic - 7.35 (bc CO2 is produced as waste product w combined w water making acid taken back to lungs) for veins.
viscosity
(more solutes =increase in viscosity = harder/need more energy to pump)
can increase in high alt (polycythemia = more rbcs)
4.5-5.5 (centipose more than H20)
plasma=2.5
WBC (leukocytes 1%)
Have nucleus
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas
Granulocytes - polymorphonuclear (has granules n different shapes of nucleus):70% Neutrophils (ilia = high count, enia = low count)
1-4% Eosinophils
<1% Basophils
20-40% Lymphocytes
2-8%
Agranulocytes
20 - 40% lymphocytes
2-8% monocytes
What are the two common types of leukemia based on the origin of cancerous cells?
MYELOGENOUS: myeloid stem cell turns cancerous
LYMPHOCYTIC: lymphoid stem cell becomes cancerous
What are the two types of leukemia based on onset (refers to the start or beginning of something)?
Acute Leukemia: Develops quickly and worsens rapidly (immature, nonfunctioning (not immunocomepetent:dk what to destroy)
Chronic Leukemia: Develops slowly and progresses over time
what happens when low proteins?
blood too dilute making it hypotonic (blood that has a lower solute concentration compared to rbcs), water goes in to tissues causing swelling (edema) ex) potbelly
what does blood transport & How does kidney faliure occur
gases
& metabolites: solutes needed throughout body also including nitrogenous waste-> urea, uric acid, creatinine (creatine broken down)
Kidney faliure caused by high uremia in blood (toxic)
What happens when Rh+ n Rh - are tg (& name of disease? + solution (name)
-1st preganacy okay, but second that baby may die (erytrooblastosis fetalis)
- Rhogam (gives antibodies against d to mother) 26 weeks and 72 hrs after birth
What is hematopoiesis?
The process of blood cell production in red bone marrow.
What is the primary function of the cardiovascular system
To transport substances throughout the entire body (blood vessels, blood, heart)
what is used for clot dissolution? & what can be given to patients
- Plasminogen becomes active to plasmin
2.streptokinase used to dissolve clot
What is used for clot to retract?
thrombosthenin used for clot to shrink
What protein in erythrocytes binds oxygen?
Hemoglobin
when does clumping happen in bloodtypes & anti serum A has what antibodies? when does clumping not occur?
-A antibodies
-recipiant must not have antibodies againt donor but its safe the other way around
ANTIGENS & ANTIBODIES CANNOT MATCH (Agglutination)
-no clumping when no antigen so O type
Erythrocytes
no nucleus or mitocondria so depend on glucose for energy (glycolysis) - 120 day life span. flat like donut w/o hole.
….play a crucial role in the blood clotting process by helping to activate various clotting factors in the coagulation cascade
Calcium ions play a crucial role in the blood clotting process by helping to activate various clotting factors in the coagulation cascade
…are involved in formation of platelets (or thrombocytes)
megakaryoblasts are involved in formation of platelets (or thrombocytes)
which wbc can move into tissues
Monocytes circulate in the blood and, when needed, move into tissues where they become Macrophages in liver (kupfer cell), phagocyic
phagocyic
They engulf and digest pathogens
Prostacyclin causes …. and inhibits clotting by preventing platelets from sticking together.
Prostacyclin causes vasodilation (widening of blood vessels) and inhibits clotting by preventing platelets from sticking together.
Atherosclerosis
plaque formation causeing the narrowing of blood vessels (staosis)
thrombus
clot that is free flowing and can block blood vessel
coronary thrombosis = heart attack
cerebral thrombosis = stroke -> paralyisis
Arteriosclerosis
Calcification (calcium deposit) so the/any blood vessel becomes hard, no expansion.] when blood comes so blood pressure rises, narrow now so less blood flows
(normally blood is supposed to be soft expand and contract with each heartbeat to help move blood throughout the body.)
aneurysm
when clot that block blood vessel, it’ll balloon/swells
transient ischemic attack (TIA) or cerebrovascular accidentin
when blood circulation stops for a few seconds in heart/brain
Angioplasty & stent
angioplasty is a procedure used to open narrowed blood vessels using stent
chambers of the heart
left/right atrium & left atrium/ventricle
fetal circulation
interatrial septem(seperates left/right), formen ovale, fossa ovalis (foramen ovale closes), right/left atrium
four heart valves + surrounded by what
The four heart valves are surrounded by fibrous rings (non conducting tissue so doesnt jump from atriam to ventri - electricle isolation):
Atrioventricular (AV) Valves (bw atrium & ventricle:
Tricuspid Valve – Between the right atrium and right ventricle.
Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve – Between the left atrium and left ventricle.
Semilunar Valves (bw ventricle and major vessel)
Pulmonary Valve – Between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery.
Aortic Valve – Between the left ventricle and aorta.
incompetant valves
When heart valves don’t close properly, they allow blood to flow backward, a condition known as regurgitation. This backward flow can cause a heart murmur
incompetant valves and valvular stenosis
does not close, backflow of blood leading to heart murmur.
valvular stenosis: hardening of valves —–> marrow opening—> swishing/hissing sound
solution: artifical/ mechnical value or pig valve (not rejected by body) can be used
A-V valves close
first sound “lub”, low pitch, longer duration
semilunar valves close
higher pitch, “dub shorter duration
Aortic insufficienc
when the aortic valve doesn’t close properly, allowing blood to flow backward into the left ventricle (left valve more likely to fail)
hearts electrical current
look at the flow. sa nofe, av node, bundle of his, rt undle branches or lt branches (purkingie fibers )
cardiac muscles
striated, branched (not under your control), electrically coupled via gap junctions & desmosomes, aeroric (ned lots of oxy, ,ito. non fatigable, spiral arrangement- help squeeze out the blood. Cardiac muscle is the heart’s specialized tissue responsible for its rhythmic contractions. It is striated, meaning it has a striped appearance due to the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments. The muscle fibers are branched and interconnected, forming a network that facilitates synchronized heartbeats. Unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle operates involuntarily, meaning its contractions are not under conscious control. It relies on aerobic metabolism, requiring a constant supply of oxygen to function effectively. Due to its high mitochondrial content, cardiac muscle is non-fatiguing, enabling continuous contraction throughout life. The muscle fibers are arranged in a spiral pattern, which helps to efficiently squeeze blood out of the heart chambers during contraction.
endocardium
innermost layer of the heart wall, lining the heart chambers and covering the heart valves. It is composed of a simple squamous epithelium known as endothelium, which is continuous with the endothelial lining of the blood vessels.
myogenic (human) heart can beat wo nervous stimulus. t/f?
true
two types of cell muscles in heart
peacemaker cells 1%
excitable cells -> generate action potential, autorhythmic -> no external stimulus needed,
NONCONTRACTILE -> dont generate force (dont move, functionis to gnerate electrical signals to control heart rythem
SA node
- primary pacemaker
- sinus rhythm
- 70 beats/min (.8 second)
- located : top of right atrium
AV node
- reserve pacemaker
- nodal rhythm
- 40-60beats/min
-located: lower atrium near interatrium
cardiomyocytes 99%
excitable cells -> action potentionm, autorhythmi( no stimulus needed,)
CONTRACTILE -> generate force, how blood will be pumped ou t
Myogenic Heart (humans) & Neurogenic Heart (insects n stuff)
human heart is myogenic, meaning it generates its own rhythmic contractions without external nervous input.
sympatheic nerves uses epinephrine to speed up heart rate makes heart beat w more force
neurogenic heart relies on nerve impulses to initiate and regulate its contractions.
sinoatrial (SA) node
located in the right atrium, is the heart’s primary pacemaker. It generates electrical impulses that set the heart’s rhythm, known as the sinus rhythm. 70 beats/min
atrioventricular (AV) node
serves as a reserve (secondary) pacemaker, AV node can take over if the SA node fails
40-60/min
sa,av, purkinji
parkinje fibers
if sa and av fail, this will take over at 20-40 beats/min
peacemaker cell
1:07 in recording
sodium entry there will depolerization(thisis the action potential which this is the simulus for muslce to contract) then going back to resting opotetional (repolarization k+ exit)
cardiomyocytees
- 99% of cells
- excitable cells
- autorhythmic
- contractile (generate force)
Atria function and structure-
collect blood returning to the heart and then contract to deliver it to the ventricles
Ventricle function and structure
left ventricle bigger cs pumping for whole body
AtrioVentricular opens during
diastole (ventricular filling)
chordae tendineae –> loose
papillary muscles –> relaxed
Incompetent Valves
Incompetent Valves
Do not close properly
May be due to damaged papillary muscles
- blood will flow back into the heart
- can hear heart murmur (swishing/hissing sound)
What type of muscle is found in the heart?
Cardiac muscle
What is the structural arrangement of cardiac muscle fibers?
Striated and branched
How are cardiac muscle cells electrically coupled?
Via gap junctions and desmosomes
What type of respiration do cardiac muscles primarily use?
Aerobic respiration
What organelle is abundant in cardiac muscle cells?
Mitochondria
What is a key characteristic of cardiac muscle in terms of fatigue?
Non-fatigable
What is the arrangement of cardiac muscle fibers that helps in pumping blood?
Spiral arrangement
Heart muscle cells contains
pacemaker and cardiomyocytes cells
Pacemaker Cells
- 1% of cells
- excitable cells (generate action potential)
- autorhythmic (no external, nervous stimulus needed)
- non contractile
+heart can beat w/o stimulus
2 types of nerves in myogenic heart
1: Sympathetic Nerve:
secreets eoinephoine to speed up the heart
2: Parasympathetic Nerve:
secreets aretycholine to slow down the heart
autonomic control
Parasympathetic Nerve to speed up the heart
travels via vagus nerve secreting aretycholine. binds to m2 (muscarinic) cholinergic receptors to slow down the heart
autonomic control
Sinoatrial Node (SA node)
primary pacemaker, sinus posterior wall of right atrium
Sinoatrial Node (SA node)
primary pacemaker, sinus posterior wall of right atrium
Atrioventricular Node (AV node)
reserve pacemaker, nodal rhythm lower back part of interatrial septum near coronary sinus
Wave of Excitation
electrical isolation of atria and ventricles
Conduction Pathway
- SA node
- AV node
- Bundle of His
4.Right/left bundle branches - Purkinje Fibers
- Cardiomyocytes
- Muscle contraction
Location of muscle/heart contraction starts at -
the apex of the heart
If right bundle is blocked -
right ventricle is blocked
If left bundle is blocked -
left ventricle is blocked
Heart Sounds
lub –> low pitch, longer duration, AV valve close
dup –> high pitch, shorter duration, SA valve close
Aortic Insufficiency
blood flows back into the left side ventricle of the heart
Generation of Action Potential in Pacemaker Cells
distribution and roles of Na+, Ca2+, and K
- prepotential/pacemaker potential
- depolarization and repolarization
P wave
- lasts 0.08 sec
- atria contract 0.1 sec after P wave begins
- atrial depolarization
Generation of Action Potential in Cardiomyocytes Cells
250-350 mSec
- resting membrane potential
- depolarization, plateau phase, repolarization
- contraction of cardiomyocytes generates force
look at picture:
- Resting Potential (-90mV)
Cardiomyocytes start at -90mV
Excitable cells → Need a stimulus (from pacemaker cells) to reach threshold and fire an AP. - Depolarization (Phase 0)
Stimulus from pacemaker cells or neighboring cardiomyocytes triggers depolarization.
Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open, and NA- IN (sodium) rushes in, making the cell rapidly positive.. - Plateau Phase (Phase 2) – Unique to Cardiomyocytes
Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels open, and CA2+ IN (calcium) enters while some K⁺ continues to exit.
plateau is created - Repolarization (Phase 3)
K+ OUT (potassium)
Membrane potential returns to -90mV.
T wave
- ventr1. Resting Potential (-90mV)
Cardiomyocytes start at -90mV (more negative than pacemaker cells).
Excitable cells → Need a stimulus (from pacemaker cells) to reach threshold and fire an AP.
2. Depolarization (Phase 0)
Stimulus from pacemaker cells or neighboring cardiomyocytes triggers depolarization.
Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open, and Na⁺ rushes in, making the cell rapidly positive.
Membrane potential rises to about +20mV.
3. Initial Repolarization (Phase 1)
Na⁺ channels close.
K⁺ (Potassium) channels open, allowing some K⁺ to leave, causing a slight drop in voltage.
4. Plateau Phase (Phase 2) – Unique to Cardiomyocytes
Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels open, and Ca²⁺ enters the cell, while some K⁺ continues to exit.
This balances charge, creating a plateau that prolongs contraction for proper blood ejection.
5. Repolarization (Phase 3)
Ca²⁺ channels close, while K⁺ channels stay open, allowing K⁺ to rush out.
Membrane potential returns to -90mV.icular repolarization
U wave
atrial repolarization
P-Q interval
atrial depolarization and contraction
S-T segement
entire myocardium depolarized
Q-T interval
ventricular depolarization, contraction, and repolarization
Depolarization vs Repolarization
De- contraction
Re- relaxation
Cardiac Output
amount of blood pumped of one side of the heart in one min
5 lit/min
70 ml stroke vol
70x/min heart rate
+adjustments in cardiac output related to physiological needs+
Congestive Heart Failure
ventricular wall too thick or too thin
What occurs during Isovolumetric Relaxation?
All valves (SA/AV) are closed, and ventricles are relaxing (diastole).
What happens to atrial pressure during Isovolumetric Relaxation?
Atrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure.
What happens to the AV valves during Isovolumetric Relaxation?
AV valves open, allowing blood to flow into the ventricles.
What percentage of ventricular filling is passive during Isovolumetric Relaxation?
80% of ventricular filling is passive.
What percentage of ventricular filling is active during Isovolumetric Relaxation?
20% of ventricular filling is active.
What is isovolumetric contraction?
A phase in the cardiac cycle where all heart valves are closed and ventricles start to contract.
What happens during the ejection phase
Blood is ejected into the aorta and pulmonary trunk.
What is end systolic volume?
The blood remaining in the ventricles at the end of systole
SA Node
cluster of cardiac muscle cell in top right atrium (dont contract - automacically generates impulses - automactic signals spread throughout heart and cs it to beat
-can generate signal
AV node
in lower back section in interatrial section
automatical genertes impulses
-can generate signal
BUndles of his & purkinje
structures (including av & sa node) and fibers allow for signals generated to spread to the rest of the heart
-all can conduct electricity
Generation of AP in pacemaker cells (sa & av node)
LOOK AT GRAPH IF NEED
1. Resting Potential (-70mV)
The cell starts at -70mV.
Na+ (Sodium) and K+ (Potassium) Channels:
Na+ enters easily due to high conductance, making the cell more positive.
this is the PACE MAKER POTENTIAL: The gradual rise in voltage from resting potential toward the threshold due to the slow influx of Na+ and Ca²⁺.
- Depolarization (-40mV, Threshold Reached)
Voltage-Gated Channels: Require a specific voltage to open.
At -40mV, voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels open, and Ca²⁺ rushes in.
This causes rapid depolarization, leading to action potential generation and muscle contraction. - Repolarization
K+ (Potassium) channels open, allowing K+ to rush out.
This restores the membrane potential back down to its resting state (repolarization).
bring posistive in, line in graph goes up
how heart contracts
top hat diagram. sa node -> av node -> bundle of his -> rt/lf bundle branches -> purkinji fibers
neurogenic heart can beat without stiumlus
if you cut the nerve, the heart will stop
av valves open when? (part of cardiac cycle)
ventricle pressure lower than pressure in atria, av valves open amd blood flows in relaxed ventricle
semilunar valves open (part of cardiac cycle)
ventricular contraction increase pressure in ventrcle causing semilunar valves to open, when ventricles relax, semilunar close
AP generate by …. stimulates … to generat their ap (that triggers muscle contraction)
AP generate by pacemaker stimulates cardiomyocytes to generat their ap (that triggers muscle contraction)
heart has to … and … complete before you see a second cycle
heart has to contract and relax completely before you see a second cycle (small delay after each cycle)
s-t depression/ elevation
depression: muscles are dead in ventrical, myocardial infarction
elevation:
right/left bundle branch block
left: two upward peaks-elevation
right: (more serious) two downward peaks- depression
atrial flutter
when atria contracts more than vent
looks like: zigzag waves (know what it looks like)
atrial fibrillation + solution
no pattern. atria contracts too fast, no time for blood to fill
solution: deflirillation: shock the heart to reset pacemaker/rythem (know what it looks like +ventricular fib
Isovolumetric Relaxation
All heart valves are closed at first.
When pressure in the atria is higher than in the ventricles, the AV valves (bicuspid & tricuspid) open, letting blood flow into the ventricles (ventricular diastole).
80% of the blood flows in passively, and the last 20% is pushed in when the atria contract.
The total blood in the ventricle before contraction (systole) is called End Diastolic Volume (EDV).
Isovolumetric Contraction & Ejection
The ventricles contract (ventricular systole), but at first, all valves stay closed (isovolumetric contraction).
When ventricular pressure is higher than in the aorta and pulmonary artery, the semilunar valves open, and blood is pumped out (ejection phase).
Key amounts of blood:
edv= end diastolic volume (in iso relaxtion phase)
Stroke Volume (SV) = EDV - ESV (blood pumped out).
Ejection Fraction (EF) = SV/EDV (percentage of blood pumped out, normally 50-65%).
End Systolic Volume (ESV) is the blood left in ventricles after pumping.
propranolol
drug give to block beta 1 receptor used to slow down heart
Autonomic control
Sympathetic (“fight or flight”) – Makes the body more active.
Parasympathetic (“rest and digest”) – Helps the body relax.
fast/slow/irregular (not rlly important)
fast: tachycardia
slow:bradycardia
irregular: arrhythmia
blood vessels
arteries, arterioles, veins, venules, capillaries
2 types of arteries
elastic and muscular arteries
pulse is when blood is …
filling
elastic arteries & dicrotic notch
-large, thick walled
-near aorta n major branches
-expands when there is bloood n goes back to normal size
dicrotic notch= blood trying to go back when it cant, so recoils
muscular arteries
smaller, smoorth muscles so can propel the blood
responsible for BP (dilate & contrict)
arterioles
-small, narrow
-offer max resistance to flow of blood
-elastic -> play a role in BP regulation
capillaries
-miroscopic & narrow
-rbcs pass in single like cs so small
have endothelium cells that secret EDRF (nitric oxide = makes vadodilator)
3 types of capillaries
(know where found in body!)
continuous (most common)
fenestrated:
-small holes so substance can leake out
-in kidneys -> filtration of blood -> urea into urine
sinusoidal capillaries:
-large holes for lar substances can get out
-located in liver spleen, bone marrow
venules/veins
-thin walled, no smooth muscles
-have valves; no pressure to keep blood moving
65-70% of blood in veins
stuctures of arteries: 3 tunica…
tunica externa:
-fibrous connective tissue that anchors & suports blood vessels
tunica media: s
-mooth muscles that vasoconstrict (bp rises) and vasodiation (bp falls)
tunica interna :
-endothelium (simple squamose)
-basment supports it
-atherosclerosis (where plaque formation takes place)
cardiac arrest is … problem
heart attack is a … problem
cardiac arrest is electrical problem
heart attack is a blood/vessel problem
blood flow, velocity, resistance, cross sectional area formulas
BLOOD FLOW: vol/time
VELOCITY: distance/time, how fast
RESISTANCE (poiseuille’s law): r=1/r^4
(radius can change), 1mm to 2mm
there is decrease in resistance/resistance, increase in flow (since wider)
Cross sectional Area:
-all capillaries= 4500 cm^2
-directly portortional to flow
-more area=more flow, less velocity; vice versa
-aorta= less flow, more velocity
4 pressures in capillary exchange & edema
look at notes on this n vids
Hydrostatic Pressure (aka blood pressure): Pushes fluid out of capillaries into tissues.
Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure (IFHP): Pushes fluid in from tissues to capillaries (usually low).
Osmotic Pressure of blood (OPc): Pulls fluid in from tissues into capillaries.
Interstitial Fluid Osmotic Pressure outside capillary: Pulls fluid out of capillaries into tissues.
-90% blood: fluid absorber
-10% capril
if no reabsorbtion (now too much fluid) EDEMA is reabsorbed
korotkoff sounds
flow of blood
sphygmomanometer
A sphygmomanometer is a device used to measure blood pressure.
MAP
diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure
pulse deficit
heart rate - pulse rate
pulse pressure
systolic pressure - diastolic pressure
factors controlling BP
NEUTRAL CONTROL:
Baroreceptors - changes pressure
chemorecptors - changes acidity (co2)
Epinephrine binds to which 2 receptors to get two outcomes
Epinephrine to A1 recept ->vasoconstriction (BP rised)
Epinephrine to B2 recept->vasodilation (bp falls)
long term blood regulation
angiotensions 2-> vasdocontrisction
ADH-> Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys, meaning less water is lost in urine. (bp rise)
Aldosterone-Sodium attracts water, so more water is retained in the body, also increasing blood volume. (bp rises)
ANP (atrial natr. peptide) -> from heart, used when BP is high, inhibits the three to increase BP
2 types of immunity
nonspecific/innate:
-everything is attacked
-mechanical/chemical barriers so prevent pathogens from entering
specific:
-attacks specific antigen
-protects antigens that entered body
7 nonspecific defense
- physical barriers -> prevent entry of pathogens (skin, mucus membrane, cilia in respiratory)
- chemical barriers ->(mucus, lysozyme in tears, saliva, acid in stomach)
- fever-> aka pyrexia, rise in body temp
- phagocytosis-> neutrophils, eos, mon, macrophages. attracted by damaged tissue (phila/osis=high count, penia=low)
- nk cells -> identify & kill abnormal/ cancer cells
- interferons -> only protection against viruses
- inflammation-> reponse to injury & histamin (used for inflamation and allergies) allows for vasodilation
specific ammunity
- trigered by exposure to antigen
-2 types of antigen; self antigen (from ur body) & non self antigen (abnormal antigens-from outside- bacteria, poisin, etc.)
inborn immunity
-t cells kill humor cells (cytotoxic)
-b cells (lymphocytes) produce memory cells & plasma
cells in bone barrow
plasma produce antibody
active & passive immunity
give weakened pathogen -> body produces antibody ex) vaccines
passive: give antibody directly
ex) snake bite, u dont wait to give antibody, you give directly
lymphatic system
tonsil-> in through
-lingual->paired
-pharyhogeol -> unpaired
-palenrine ->
not good to remove bc compromises immune system
lymphatic organs
-mucusa associated lymphoid tissue (malt) -> in gut
Rathke’s pouch
makes up main part of pituary gland and gives rise to andeohyphysis (anterior lobe)
Optic chiasma:
in hypothalumus where the optic nerves cross.
