midterm Flashcards
perception
how stimulus gets represented in our mind so we can act upon whats going on around us
agnosia
deficit in recognition despite normal vision due to brain damage
appreceptive agnosia
cant name, match, copy, or discriminate visual stimuli\ncant combine basic visual information to form an image\nlike glancing at something and looking away really fast
associative agnosia
cant recognize the objects they are looking at \ncan copy bc they can combine features\nthey can guess but its not real perception
steps to visual perception as indicated by agnosia
- input\n2. assemble basic visual components (appreceptive agnosia)\n3. meaning is links to visual input (associative agnosia)
experience error
assumption that what you see is accurate because perception is so effortless\nex. visual illusion show that we dont always perceive an accurate representation of visual stimulus
smooth pursuit
the smooth trail your eyes take when youre following a moving object with your eyes
fixation–saccade
a type of experience error in which your eyes jump between stationary objects \nreal visual perception is suppressed to avoid a blur when your eyes move aka gaps in your visual every time your eyes move aka not actually perceiving what were seeing aka experience erro\nwe get visual info during fixation not saccade
Distal stimulus
something perceived at a distance that we cannot access
proximal stimulus
mental representation of distal stimulus
computational approach to perception
concerned with discovering how the brain represents and interprets distal stimulus (the physically objective reality of the object) aka proximal stimulus
gestalt approach to perception
uses organizational principles to create meaningful perception of the environment \n”the whole is different than the sum of its parts”\naka gestalt is about grouping not breaking features down\nnot predictive
bottom up processing
data driven\nwe recognize patterns my analyzing stimulus piece by piece
top down processing
conceptually driven\nperception is influenced by past experience and prior knowledge
template matching theory
computational approach\n according to template theory we have a mental ‘stencil’ for an array of different patterns (especially for letters) \nIt would be impossible to have so many templates in our mind\n\nworks for computers not people
feature matching theory
computational approach\n we have a system for analysing each distinct feature of a visual item\n\neg. pandemonium
pandemonium model
selfridge\nfeature matching theory\nimage, feature, cognitive, and decision demons\ncapture image, identify their feature, yell for most likely letter, and choose letter\nserial processing
problems with pandemonium model
doesnt explain how features come together, just that cog demons know how\ndoesn’t try to understand 3D perception
physiological support for feature matching theoru
feature detector neurons\nstill doesnt explain configuration problem
structuralism
wundt and titchener\nanalyatic introspection\ncontent of thoughts\nwas pretty scientific but titchener got rid of repeatability so not great
functionalism
william james\npurpose of thought
4 principles of scientific methos
- empiricism (conclusions based on data)\n2. determinism (observation has a cause)\n3. testability (falsification)\n4. parsimony (simplest theory that explains all data)
behaviourism
watson and skinner\nblack box
latent learning
tolman rat experiment
problems with behaviourism
no latent learning (tolman)\nno language explanation – ppl come up with new stuff all the time they weren’t taught like kids saying \i hate you mommy/ for dramatic affect (chomsky)
Newell and Simon
first designed a computer program Logic Theorist which was better than humans\nfirst thinking machine\nsuggested brains are a symbol system
neisser
coined the term cognitive psychology\nfirst to think of human brains as information processes\nfirst to use suggest computer models to explain human brain functions
representationalism
Describes how the unobservable mind can act on the real world
Aboutness
the conscious experience we have about the world; mental representation is what our consciousness holds about our surrounding reality \nlike a stage\nassumes all thoughts are mental representations about something real
Marr
proposed that if computers process information and so does our mind, then our mind must be computational
Modern understanding of cognitive psychology
Mind stores symbols representations from an input which are manipulated with rules to produce an output.
connectionism
alternate theory of computing\nseries of neurons connected instead of symbols
embodied cognition
believes info is given by real world interaction and not representation, therefore you cannot study perception in a vacuum without real body interaction\nex. ppl carrying heavy books thought staircase was steeper than ppl who didnt
grounding problem
issue for AI and cog psych\ncan never actually define a symbol without another symbol\nonly way around is to actually hold the thing
machine learning
Machine learning is a type of AI programming in which computers learn from data to improve their performance on tasks without explicit instructions for each step.
artificial neural networks
a rtificial neural networks are a key machine learning technique modeled on the structure and function of the human brain.They allow computers to learn complex patterns and adapt to new information, offering a potential path to replicating human cognitive abilities
what are some of the key challenges in developing human–like AI?
complexity of the real world (hard to predict every thing), hard to replicate human ability to filter important info, hard to replicate human flexibility
The “cognitive revolution” led to the idea of cognition as a form of ______
computation
operant vs classical condioning
active vs passive particpant
science works on the premise of…
pragmatic materialism
materialism is a type of…
monism
To say two functions are doubly dissociated indicates that those two functions ______.
involve different mechanisms\nlike how speech production and comprehension are doubly dissociated (broca and wernickes aphasia)
parietal lobe
attention and sensory processing
temporal lobe
meaning of sensory info and language
This technique simulates the basic architecture of the human brain.
artificial neural network
This type of neuron receives information from neurons and sends information to other neurons.
association
specificity vs distributed vs sparse encoding
one neuron one task, group of neurons at different rates, combo of two (some same some dif)
biedermans recognition by components
type of feature matching\ngeons (3d shapes) are viewpoint invariant (can be recognized from any angle) because they have nonaccidental properties (things that belong to the object regardless of viewpoint)\n\nBUT recognition is impaired when we view objects from noncanonical viewpoints\nbasically, we break down features to identify unless the feature is hidden – not true for humans
viewpoint invarient
can be recognized from any angle\nbiederman
nonaccidental properties
properties that belong to the object regardless of viewpoint\nex. parallel lines on a phone are nonaccidental and shadows are accidental (sometimes there)\nbiederman
noncanonical viewpoints
unconventional viewpoints in which nonaccidental properties are hidden and so they are hard to identify
view based recognition
top down\nagainst biederman – ppl are not viewpoint invariant, we are view point sensitive/centered and context does matter in how we perceive its not just the geons (feature matching)\nsuggested by the fact that we recognize faster from familiar viewpoints
is biederman bu or td
bottom up
arguments agianst bottom up processing
too long to analyze feature by feature\ncant explain within category descrimination
patter recognition depends on (top down/bottom up)
top down
light from above heuristic
example of top down processing \nevolutionarily, we assume all light comes from above, so we perceive depth based on this assumption
gestalt bu or td
top down
law of proximity
gestalt \nif close, we group
law of similarity
gestalt\nif similar in feature, we group
law of common region
gestalt\nif enclosed, we group
why is gestalt not predictive
bc we cannot predict what laws will win out in every occasion, depends on each image
role of experience in gesalt
if youve associated it before, you will group it again in the future
direct perception approach
gibson\nembodied cognition approach\nargued that classical perception study focuses on ‘indirect’ representation of objects (distal) whereas we should focus on the direct representation (proximal)\ngoal of perspective is action
ambient optic array
Because we are always moving around, the ambient optic array is all that is needed to gain information about the world
what is motion
optic flow (continuous change in optic array)\nif flow, observer in motion\ndirection of flow indicates the direction the observer is mover
object affordances
gibson’s direct perception approach\nthe knowledge of how to interact with things in the world that we learned from interactions with our body\nex. look at a chair and know it “affords” sitting
in Gibsons direct perception approach, affordances directly connect ____and ____ without the need for ____ processes. \nthere is no ___ stimulus and no role of ____
perception, action, cognitive\nproximal (perceptual representation), memory (top–down processing)
dorsal stream for object recognition
“where/how” stream – how do i act on this\nlateral occipital cortex to parietal\naction affects perception\nideomotor apraxia
temporal stream for object recognition
“what” stream – what is this\nllateral occipital cortex to temporal\naction does not affect perception\n associative agnosia pt have damage here
ideomotor apraxia
damage to dorsal stream of recognition\nknow what it is but not how to use it\nopposite of associative agnosia
blind sight
damage to the occipital cortex\ndissociation/independence of visual recognition and vision for action
facial recognition brain area
fusiform face area – FFA
Constructive Perception
the brain builds a mental model of the world based on sensory input and prior knowledge. This model accounts for the stability of perception despite constantly changing sensory information.\n “These observations suggest that our brains take an unstable, divided sensory input and turn it into a stable, unified model of the world.”
Transduction
the process of converting a physical stimulation into a neural code
Exteroception
The sensing and processing of information from the external environment by the five senses
Interoception
The sensing and processing of information from inside the body
Figure–group assignment
the determination of which side of a boundary contains the shape versus the background Our brain has a bias for identifying convex and symmetrical figures as the figure
phonemic restoration effect
An auditory illusion where missing sounds in speech are “filled in” by the brain based on the context and expectations of the language\ntop down
What are figure–ground cues?
Cues used by the brain to determine figure and ground, including convexity, symmetry, and smaller region.
scene schemas
Our knowledge of what objects typically appear in certain scenes
exogenous attention
stimulus driven – something catches our attention
endogenous attention
deciding to pay attention to something
overt attention
Overt attention involves directly focusing our eyes on the object or location we’re attending to.\nalways happens with exogenous attention, its very hard to not look at something that catches our attention
covert attention
Covert attention involves shifting our attention without moving our eyes, allowing us to attend to something in our peripheral vision without directly looking at it like looking away when eavesdropping\nalways endogenous, hard to not attend to something that you are paying attention to so it has to be purposeful
automatic vs controlled attention
continuum of how much attention is needed to perform the given task
stimulus saliency (attention–grabbing) drives attention is a bu/td theory
bottom up
attenion is driven by goal–directed information is a bu/td theory
top down
change blindness
the effect that happens if changes occur to something you are attending to but because the change isn’t salient (attention grabbing) you will not be CONSCIOUS of it
inattention blindness
Inattentional blindness is the failure to notice unexpected stimuli when our attention is focused elsewhere. This demonstrates that we are often unaware of things outside our attentional focus.\n\nno change involved
dichotic listening task
broadbent
people could recognize sensory information of the auditory stimuli they were NOT attending to but not the meaning\nproblems: they could hear their own name or follow a message
early selection filter model
broadbent\nsensory memory of features like pitch (stored briefly) –> filter for relevant info–> detector –> LTM\nbasically, we don’t even pick up unattended information, just its sensory features\nFILTER EARLY
triesmans experiment
will people follow a message if important info is playing in the unattended ear
triesmans attenuation model
attenuator (adjusts volume of all stimulus according to relevance) –> dictionary unit –> memory\nbasically, everything is picked up regardless of intention and is adjusted based on whether you intend to attend to it, intensity, importance, etc. \nUnattended information is weakened, not completely blocked. \nmiddle selection
capacity theories of attention
fixed amount of attention resources\ntasks take different amounts of cognitive load (amount of attention required) which affect our additional resources available
cognitive load
amount of attention the task requires
flanker compatibility task
supports divided attention theory\nin low load condition, where there were no distractors, the flanker took all the ppt extra available attention and they were slower at identifying target
features of automatic processes
dont require attention, fast, can be done in parallel with something else, cannot be modified once started
features of controlled processes
require attention, slow, serial, under conscious control, can be made automatic with practice
stroop task
reading the word blue in yellow\nharder to identify because reading is automatic and identifying colours is not\nwe must finish reading before we can identify colour
capacity of attention
4 plus or minus 1 items at a time
vigilance
attention as a spotlight through space\nfaster at identifying things if we were primed to look there\neven more effective for objects, not just space
halle berry experiment
single neurons can encode for highly specific information\nsparse encoding
binding problem
is one role of attention to bind features? how does attention combine separate features into an object? \nconclusion through visual search experiments: feature binding is a result of focused attention
feature search
visually search for a single unique feature\n”jumps out at you”
conjunction search
visually search for two features\nlonger than single feature search
IV and DV for visual search task
IV: type of search (conjunction or feature), number of distractors, presence of a target\nDV: RT to respond
feature integration theory
visual search is a two–step process\n1. preattentive stage (single feature pops out)\n2. focused attention stage (attention bind features at that location to cause recognition)\nif that object isn’t the target, then you move to another location and restart
preattentive stage
single feature pops out– no attention needed\nfirst step of feature integration theory
focused attention phase
attention bind features at that location to cause recognition\nsecond stage of feature integrative theory
multitasking
rapid task switching\ncauses time costs for readjustments and decreased costs
_____ errors occur when attention fails to bind features of unattended objects.
conjunction
cueing task shows that attention does what?
prepares the brain to process specific stimuli, speeding up response times
How does attentional load affect filtering?
Under high load, the attentional filter is more strict, and less unattended information gets through. Under low load, the filter is more flexible, and more unattended information may be processed
How does attention guide visual search?
attention helps us selectively process information in the visual field, guiding our search for the target. In conjunction search, attention is needed to bind features together and compare each item to the target’s features
T value
relative difference between the means, the bigger the t value the larger the difference
within vs between subject studies
different people in each group vs one group of people
individual samples t test is for…
b/w subject
paired samples t test
within subject
anova
tells you which t test to run
atkinson–shiffrin multi modal memory model
sensory input (everything) –> sensory memory (unattended info is lost) –>through attention–> short term memory (unrehearsed info is lost) –>through encoding/retrieval–> LTM\nsimplistic
sensory memory
different memory stores for each sense\nattention passes info from sensory memory to STM
iconic memory
visual sensory memory
whole report technique
recall as much as you can
sperling sensory store investigation
with whole report, 3–4 sensory items were recalled\nwith partial report, 76% were recalled\ntherefore, 3–4 was due to short duration\ncaps out at 12 items, therefore capacity is 9
iconic (sensory) memory capacity
around 9 items
duration of iconic memory vs limit of sensory memory in which it becomes WM or STM
150 ms vs 1s
within a second, what number of items can move from sensory memory to STM? Why?
4 because attention transports b/w sensory and STM and its capacity is 4
duration of echoic and tactile sensory memory? capacity?
around 4–5 seconds\ndoesnt really have a capacity bc items are arbitrary in touch/sounds, its just how much fits in 5 secs
when you ask someone to repeat themselves but then understand what they said before they do, the sound is stored in ___ and understood because ___
sensory memory\nyou went back to attend to it
STM duration
10–20 sec WITHOUT rehearsal
STM capacity
7 plus or minus 2 items or MEANINGFUL chunks\ndepending on person\nlike slots
different ____ have different digit span capacities because ___
languages\nwe rehearse things verbally and some languages have longer numbers
STM span is smaller for ___ lists
rhyming
what suggested that STM is stored acoustically?
stm is smaller for rhyming lists\nstm is smaller for languages with multisyllabic numbers
default is to ___ code something to STM, if not ___
verbally\nvisual
change detection paradigm
present pictures, respond yes/no if they are the same or not
STM capacity for VISUAL info\nwhy?
4 items\nbc attention, for verbal rehearsal, items are not relevant
working memory
baddeley\nalternative to STM that was actually predictive of performance in everyday tasks bc it proposes that WM actually manipulates the information as well as stores it\nmade up of central executive, phonological loop (verbal info), visuo–spatial sketch pad
WM capacity and duration
capacity depends on the task\nnot limited by duration, as long as it is actively being attended to/manipulated, it will stay
phonological loop aka
verbal STM
phonological loop storage depends on
phonological store and articulatory rehearsal process
articulatory rehearsal process converts __ into ___
visual info, verbal code
articulatory suppression
saying lalala while youre trying to remember something – preventing articulatory rehearsal and therefore encoding\nhas to occur DURING encoding
word length effect
more syllables = remember less
phonological similarity effect
sound similar/rhyme = remember less
articulatory suppression eliminates ___ effect and ___ effect because…
phonological similarity, word legnth\nit forces you to code the information visually not verbally so these things cant take effect
central executive
where processing occursattentional control mechanism\nrequired for initiating recall, integrating info, planning actions\nregulates relevant and irrelevant info
high WM capacity is associated with better ____ and therefore more ___
ability to disregard irrelevant info\nfree memory slots available at any time
operation span
how many words you can remember while doing algebra in between each word
span tasks correlate with ___, including ___
everyday tasks\nacademic performance
baddeley’s revised WM model
CE connects to PL and VSS and an episodic buffer which all connect to LTM\nCE higher level
episodic buffer
baddeley revised model\nused to integrate info from different modalities (verbal, visual) into a complete memory\nbinds info from WM and LTM
domain general and parallel activation WM model
one LTM “cloud” \nWM is when we attend to info in the cloud in 3–4 items at a time
visual change detection task
yes/no did the display change\nnear perfect at 4 items or less, after that, performance drops\nchunking can help
VSTM capacity
3–5 items
Both ___ and ___ contribute to forgetting in STM
decay\ninterference
Proactive Interference
Proactive interference happens when information you learned previously interferes with your ability to remember new information\nold info affects new
ppt were better at remembering auditory information when they responded visually (pointing) and better at remembering visual information when they responded verbally (speaking) because of…
interference
Retroactive interference
refers to cases in which newer information causes you to forget something from the past\nnew info affects old
Working memory capacity has been correlated with, and shown to predict, what?
general intelligence, mathematical and reasoning abilities
duration and capacity for LTM
unknown
broadly, LTM is stored…
semantically
serial position effects
primacy effect\nrecency effect
evidence that primacy and recency effects involve separate memory systems comes from the fact that…
we can eliminate one at a time\n beginning is LTM, end is STM
how to make recency effect worse? primacy effect worse?
increase delay after finishing list\ndecrease time between items
poor memory in the middle of lists can be explained by…
decay and both proactive and retroactive interference
Squire memory system framework
LTM split into nondeclarative and declarative down to the brain systems
examples of declarative memory
facts, events
examples of nondeclarative memory (4)
procedural skills (muscle memory), priming (better second time), classical conditioning, nonassociative learning (learning without stimulus like desensitization)
explicit memory tasks
recognition, recall
serial recall
recall in the order provided
implicit memory tasks
procedural (muscle memory), priming (repetition and semantic)
repetition priming
faster at responding to the same stimulus after repetition
semantic priming
faster at responding to stimulus that is semantically related (like cat and dog)
retrograde amensia is worse ____ and better ___
recently before the injury, long before the injury
anterograde amensia
memory loss for events AFTER trauma
memory consolidation
forming new memories
H.M demonstrated normal ____ learning, like ____
implicit\npriming (word completion tasks), procedural tasks
synaptic consolidation
consolidation of memories occurring at the neuronal level (between two adjacent neurons)\nfast (around 1 min)
systems consolidation
consolidation of memories occuring between multiple brain structures ex. semantic memories\ncan take decades to form long lasting stable memories\n Involves the hippocampus and cortex
reconsolidation
consolidation of a memory that occurs when memory is reactivated (relearned)\nfaster than if it were truly new info
long term potentiation (LTP)
LTM increases the sensitivity of postsynaptic neurons by causing structural changes\naka after repeated presentation of a stimulus, the synapse changes structurally to be more sensitive\n a neural process that strengthens the connections between neurons, making it easier for them to fire together in the future
H.M has his ____ removed, which is particularly important for systems consolidation
medial temporal lobe
consolidation is ___ but retrieval is ___ (standard model)
hippocampal dependant\nhippocampul independant
hippocampal dependant consolidation
hippocampus binds info across different cortical areas that are strengthened over time. cortex maintains these connections independent of the hippocampus
multiple trace theory (MTT)
hippocampal dependant consolidation and hippocampal independent retrieval but for SEMANTIC MEMS ONLY\nfor episodic memory, both are hp dependant
why is standard consolidation theory and MTT still in debate
hard to falsify because we often compensate for a missing episodic memory with semantic memory (facts about the event)\nit seems true that ppl with hp lesions do NOT have episodic memories and are just compensating (consistent with MTT)
generally believed that all ___ memories start as ____ memories. This is disproved by ____
semantic\nepisodic\nyoung ppl with episodic anterograde amnesia who were still able to have a normal language development and IQ – this would not be possible if all his semantic memories started as episodic
levels of processing LTM theory
processing view of memory instead of systems view\nhow we encode info affects the likelihood of retrieval, rather than where it is stored or how long it was stored for – “deep processing”\nemphasis on maintenance and elaborative rehearsal\nsupported by better memory when you are tested on meaning
maintenance rehearsal
processing system\nkeep info active in STM
elaborative rehearsal
link info in STM with info already in LTM\nbasically add meaning
levels of processing experiment
ask yes/no about two words based on font, rhyme, and meaning\nin a surprised recall task, meaning words are best remembered\n”deep processing”
problems with levels of processing theory
circular logic – what is “deep processing” other than it leads to better memory\nsometimes, shallow processing is better than deep processing
isolation effect/von restoff effect
distinctiveness is easier to rememeber\none cue tells us exactly where to find information
forgetting LTM is often due to ___ failures, not ___
retrieval\nthat was not encoded
encoding specificity principle
memory better for meaningless cued recall than for meaningful category recognition\neven weirder bc recognition is usually easier than recall\ntherefore, learning is better when any condition present during the encoding of information can help with later retrieval, even seemingly irrelevant details
transfer appropriate processing
encoding specificity theory\nmatch between the type of processing used at encoding and retrieval
context depending learning
environmental context effects\nencoding specificity theory
state depedant learning
mood dependant effects\nencoding specificity theory
how to improve LTM
imagery, distributed practice, elaborative rehearsal
STM retains ____, while LTM primarily stores ____
specific sensory details\n the meaning and abstract representation of information.
Hippocampal Replay
Reactivation of neural activity patterns observed during initial encoding, contributing to systems consolidation.
Which type of memory is least prone to forgetting?
procedural
encoding specificity vs transfer dependant
specific cues or contexts present at encoding and retrieval vs match between the type of processing used at encoding and retrieval\n Transfer–appropriate processing is like using the same tool for both building and disassembling something. Encoding specificity is like having a specific key that unlocks a particular memory.
Digit span task average
8
brown–peterson task
trigrams\ntest STM duration without rehearsal
