midterm Flashcards
Explain why we can consider learning to be adaptive, and give several examples that support this assertion.
- necessary for survival
- increased chance of reproduction
- passing along genes
From your own personal learning experiences, give three examples of learned content you need to be aware of to use, and give three examples of learning that you can use without awareness.
Aware:
1. Making decisions
2. Driving
3. Planning a bus route
Unaware:
1. Walking
2. Breathing
3. Blinking
Differentiate between changes in behaviour due to learning vs. performance. Explain three sources of behaviour change NOT due to learning, and give an example of each not mentioned in the lecture notes or textbook.
Some behaviour changes do not depend on prior experience, or they do not last very long.
Three sources of behaviour change not due to learning
1. Fatigue - not being able to do a skating skill as well as the beginning of the session because my muscles are weak and I am fatigued.
2. Stimulus change - taking shelter from a storm that is coming
3. Maturation - a child can reach the cereal box on the top shelf after growing
What is the General Process approach? Discuss the pros and cons of the General Process approach versus focusing on individual differences in learning.
Looking for consistencies between animals or between people, as
opposed to focusing on individual differences between them
Pros and cons:
Pros - looks for generalities
Cons - misses the process of insight
Compare the nativist viewpoint with the empiricist viewpoint. Analyze the following historical figures as to whether they are more nativist or empiricist in their views (or perhaps a mix of both), and explain why: Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, Hobbes, Ebbinghaus, James, Pavlov, Darwin.
- Nativist = Humans are shaped
primarily by their biological
inheritance (nature). - Empiricist = Humans are
shaped primarily by their
experience (nurture). - Aristotle - empiricist - ideas are built by rules of association
- Descartes - nativist - believed involuntary behaviour is reflexive
- Locke - empiricism - mind gradually fills with ideas and information
when person senses (experiences) world around them - Hobbes - nativist - hedonism
- Ebbinghaus - empiricist - associationism
- James - empiricist - associationism
- Pavlov - empiricist - classical conditioning
- Darwin - nativist - animal like reflexes
How did Descartes’ ideas contrast to what the public thought at the time about the causes of behaviour? How does Cartesian Dualism explain voluntary and involuntary behaviours?
- Before Descartes, people generally believed in free will and
conscious choice of behaviour - cartesian dualism = Involuntary reflexes involve stimuli detected by sense organs,
processed by the brain, causing movements in the muscles. Voluntaryactions involve stimuli detected by sense organs, processed
by the brain, communication by the pineal gland, and conscious intent
provided by the mind, causing movements in the muscles
What is associationism? Explain how Aristotle thought associations were established. Explain how James thought associations have a role in the organization of stored information.
- associationism = The theory that complex mental processes, such as thinking, learning,
and memory, can be wholly or mainly explained by the associative links
formed between ideas according to specific laws. - aristotle - rules of associationism (contiguity, frequency, similarity)
- james - experiences links ideas in the mind
Tell the story of Ebbinghaus’ research study on memory for lists of nonsense syllables. What impact did his work have on the field of experimental psychology and on our understanding of learning and memory?
He used himself as a test subject and tried to memorize nonsense words like BAP. The method was to learn the list, delay and then try to recall the list again. Revealed the exponential forgetting curve.
Why are animals used for some types of psychological research – what are the benefits?
- better experimental control
- processes may be simpler
- facilitates study of evolutionary and biological basis of learning and memory
Compare and contrast the concepts of elicited behaviour and reflex. Describe two examples of elicited behaviours that are of different levels of complexity.
- elicited behaviour = an observable response to a stimulus
- reflex = the simplest form of elicited behaviour
- examples = eye blinking, withdrawal
Describe what is meant by Modal Action Pattern. Give an example of a modal action pattern as observed in animals. Integrating the concept of the sign stimulus, explain what is different about modal action patterns as compared to voluntary behaviours.
- modal action pattern = response sequences typical of a particular species
- example = mating behaviours in sickleback fish
- sign stimuli are a specific stimulus that elicits a modal action pattern. even if this is removed, the MAP will continue. MAPs are different from voluntary behaviours because they are not learned from experience, they are species specific.
A bear was thirsty. She walked downhill until she saw a valley thick with trees, and upon entering the valley she finally heard the sound of running water. She walked closer to the source of the sound until she found a creek and took a drink, swallowing several gulps of the cold water. Analyze this behaviour sequence to identify the: appetitive behaviour; consummatory behaviour; general search mode; focal search mode; food handling and ingestion mode.
- appetitive behaviour = trying to find the water stream
- consummatory behaviour = drinking the water
- general search mode = walking in the forest before hearing the sound of the creek
- focal search mode = hearing the sound of the creek and focusing in on that to find the water source
- handling and ingestion mode = finds the creek and drinks the water
Define each of habituation and sensitization, and give two personal real-life examples of each. Choose one of your examples of habituation and apply each of the following concepts to it. In other words, describe how each of the following concepts could occur for your personal example:
Dishabituation
Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus specificity
Short- and long-term forms
Spaced vs. massed stimuli
Innocuous vs. strong stimuli
- habituation = the elicited behaviour weakens
- sensitization = the elicited behaviour strengthens
- example of habituation = alarm tone
- example of sensitization = smelling smoke or a fire and becoming triggered because your house burned down
1. dishabituation = play the alarm over and over, a few seconds in between, until response of a jump from the sounds stops, now play a new alarm sound and it will have a stronger startle effect.
2. spontaneous recovery = taking a few hours in between the alarm - this is why i can play the same alarm tone every day because there is a break in between.
3. stimulus specificity = playing a very similar alarm tone after habituating to the first tone will give a different, unhabituated response
4. short and long term forms = repeating the alarm sound several times for a long time, response can become permanent
5. spaced vs. massed stimuli = taking breaks in between playing the alarm will make habituation last longer, but it takes longer to do
6. innocuous vs. strong stimuli = a strong smell of smoke from your house burning down can create sensitization, rather than just smelling it through a candle burning
Explain how habituation and sensitization can be measured via the startle response in rats, and by analyzing gaze (orienting) in babies.
- habituation - startle response will go down with repeated exposure
- sensitization - there will still be a response, long-term habituation does not ever really happen
- habituation - if you show babies the same checkerboard pattern they wont gaze at it as much as when you first introduced it
Compare and contrast dishabituation, spontaneous recovery, and sensitization.
- dishabituation = A novel/arousing stimulus can temporarily recover responses to the habituating stimulus
- spontaneous recovery = When repeated stimulus stops, behaviour gradually returns to normal.
- sensitization = increasing responses to a noxious stimuli
Compare and contrast sensitization and habituation with respect to: strength of stimuli; stimulus specificity; need for repetition; and adaptive function.
- habituation:
- decreases behaviour
- innocuous stimuli
- repeated exposure
- stimulus specific
- sensitization:
- increases behaviour
- noxious stimuli
- single trial - but more helps
- generalizes
Consider the use of acoustic startle to measure habituation and sensitization in rats. How could you explain the acoustic startle response in rats using dual-process theory? Some ideas to incorporate:
S-R system
State system and how strongly it is activated
Which stimuli elicit the S-R vs. the State systems
Whether habituation and sensitization occur separately or together
Connections between sensory and motor neurons
Stimulus-specificity vs. generalization
- S-R system = makes the rats habituated to the noise to a certain extent (not fully). weak stimuli elicit this system.
- state system = makes the rats sensitive to the noise to a certain extent (not fully) so the sensitization never fully goes away that is why they keep having the response. noxious stimuli elicit this system.
- habituation and sensitization occur together because of these two systems
- In habituation, repeated
weak stimuli lead to a
weakening of the
connections between
sensory & motor neurons - In sensitization, repeated
strong stimuli lead to
strengthening of the
connections between
sensory & motor neurons - the certain tone will create stimulus specific habituation but loud tones in general will create sensitization
Explain the difference between infants’ fixation time on a 4x4 vs. 12x12 checkerboard over 8 trials. Discuss the S-R and state systems in your answer.
- The 4 X 4 checkerboard did not produce much
arousal; only produced responses in the S-R system
→ habituation - The 12 X 12 checkerboard produced a higher
amount of arousal; activated the state system and
S-R system → sensitization, then habituation
What are the requirements of the Opponent Process Theory of Motivation? Give an example of a biphasic emotional reaction that you have experienced in real life. Describe Process a and Process b of your initial responses and also after significant experience.
- requirements:
- biphasic emotional reactions
- weakened (habituated) primary
reactions to repeated stimulations - Weakening of primary reaction (due
to repetition) is accompanied by
strengthening of after-reaction
- example of biphasic emotion = feeling nervous before a presentation and then feeling calm and releived after
- process a = feeling nervous
- process b = feeling the opposite -> calm
Why have the neural processes of habituation and sensitization been studied in such great detail in Aplysia californica? Explain the following as related to the Aplysia model:
1. How the gill-withdrawal reflex can be measured
2. How habituation has been demonstrated behaviourally
3. How dishabituation has been demonstrated behaviourally
4. How spontaneous recovery has been demonstrated behaviourally
5. How synaptic depression arises between the sensory and motor neurons
6. How sensitization has been demonstrated behaviourally
7. What changes occur in the sensory-motor neuron pathways that produce sensitization – and how these relate to the SR system and state system
8.Why sensitization relies on heterosynaptic processes whereas habituation relies on homosynaptic processes
9. The mechanisms of long-term habituation and long-term sensitization between the sensory and motor neurons
- a photocell was placed under the gill to record amplitude and duration of the response elicited by the stimulus
- progressively smaller withdrawals to the gentle touch of the gill
- dishabituation occurs after strong stimulus to the neck
- after a period of rest, the aplysia showed the gill withdrawal reflex again
- Repeated touch leads to less release of transmitter by sensory
neuron: synaptic depression (a reduction in synaptic transmission). - Gentle touch to siphon to produce gill
withdrawal, Aversive shock to tail, Next touch, much longer and/or stronger
withdrawal, Recovers quickly, but becomes long-lasting with multiple sessions - Tail shock activates interneurons that
release a neuromodulator such as serotonin. Serotonin modulates sensory neurons to
release more transmitter on next activation. In long-term sensitization, new sensory motor synapses are added. State system strengthens the connections between sensory and motor neurons here! - Sensitization is heterosynpatic because it relies on changes across several synapses. Habituation is homosynaptic because it Involves only those synapses involved in the event. A light touch to the tail or mantle still elicits the gill withdrawal, even though a touch to the siphon is ignored.
- Long-term habituation can occur when the # of presynaptic terminals in the sensory neurons is reduced. In long-term sensitization, new sensory motor synapses are added.
How is classical conditioning different from habituation? Define the components of classical conditioning (CS, US, CR, CS) and give an example from everyday life broken down into these components.
Habituation and involves responding to
repetitions of just one stimulus. Classical conditioning is associative learning between stimuli.
- CS = conditioned stimulus - seeing drug dealer
- US = unconditioned stimulus - drug
- CR = conditioned response - body expects drug (nervous system depresses)
- UR = unconditioned response - body expects drug from taking it
What are aversive and appetitive conditioning? Briefly explain the procedures for fear conditioning in rats, and eyeblink conditioning in rabbits. Again, define the components of classical conditioning for these paradigms. How can conditioned suppression provide a measurement of fear conditioning?
- aversive conditioning = the US is unpleasant
- appetitive conditioning = the US is desirable
- fear conditioning in rats = Pressing the response lever occasionally produces a pellet of food. Periodically a tone is presented, ending in a brief shock through the grid floor. The rat comes to suppress lever pressing during the tone.
- CS = lever
- US = tone with electric shock
- CR = not suppressing the lever
- UR = fear?
- rat is scared of the shock so it does not
press the lever which is associated with the
shock
- eyeblink conditioning in rats =
