final exam

Question 1

What kind of association (e.g., S-R, R-O, or S-O) did Thorndike believe was the most crucial in instrumental learning? Explain what he thought the role of R was in instrumental learning. Although these ideas are generally not well-supported at this time, how can Thorndike’s ideas inform the study of habit behaviour and/or drug addiction?

Answer 1

Thorndike thought that the S-R association was the most crucial in instrumental learning. The role of the reinforcer was to strengthen the S-R association. Thorndike’s ideas can inform the study of habit behaviour and/or drug addiction because habits were seen to be automatic responses to the S in which a goal was previously obtained. So in drug addiction, it is the S-R without the O.

Question 2

a) Explain why the S-O association in instrumental conditioning can be considered very similar to emotional (classical) conditioning. What expectation is formed by this association?
b) What are the two processes in Two-Process Theory? Explain why, according to this theory, classical conditioning mediates instrumental conditioning. Give a real-life example of instrumental conditioning and break it down into the two processes of Two-Process Theory. How do specific reward expectancies influence instrumental behaviour?

Answer 2

a) during instrumental conditioning, stimuli(S) become associated with response outcome (O;reinforcement) through classical conditioning (S-O association). The resulting emotional state (like a CR) motivates the instrumental behaviour.
b) The two processes in the two-process theory is the S-O association that produces classical conditioning and the operant/instrumental conditioning. Classical conditioning mediates instrumental conditioning because it brings a positive feeling from the outcome. An example of the two-process theory would be:
S = favourite relative’s house
R = help favourite relative
O = a delicious meal
Organisms tend to acquire specific reward expectancies. For example, if a mouse is classically conditioned to receive food pellet, they will expect that food pellet from here on out.

Question 3

a) Is the R-O association actually important in instrumental learning? How could its importance be demonstrated experimentally?
b) Compare how the S-R and R-O associations can contribute to drug addiction.

Answer 3

a) Yes it is important, for example if you devalue the reinforcer after conditioning, people will choose to work for other reinforcements instead.
b) S-R mechanisms are activated by the drug-related cues (habit; predominant later in addiction). R-O mechanisms represent drug-seeking behaviour (seeking reinforcement; predominant earlier in addiction - fade out later in addiction)

Question 4

What is an S(R-O) association, and how is it different from an S-R association? It might be helpful to explain using an example.

Answer 4

S’s activate R-O associations in addiction to activating R’s. For example, I see a vending machine (S), I out money in (R) and I expect the food (O). None of this would have happened if I didn’t see the vending machine first (S).

Question 5

Explain how you would need to use different approaches to produce stereotypy of responses (consistent/similar responses), vs. variability or creativity in responses, using reinforcement. Give a real-life example that demonstrates how either outcome could be achieved.

Answer 5

You would need to design the reinforcement in a way that line up with natural behaviour. For example, using food as a reinforcer when an animal is hungry would work better than when it is not hungry. For promoting creativity and variability in responses, you would need to choose activities where creativity and variability is normal or beneficial, for example, art projects.

Question 6

How can belongingness, instinctive drift and behaviour systems theory explain why reinforced behaviours can be different, or less, than those expected or desired?

Answer 6

a) belongingness = certain responses belong with the reinforcer because of evolutionary history
b) instinctive drift = animals may revert to automatic behaviour that interferes with attempts to reinforce other behaviours
c) behaviour systems theory = if an animal is food-deprived and might encounter food, its feeding system is activated

Question 7

For each of the following examples, identify which option within would likely produce stronger reinforced behaviour and briefly explain why, including any relevant terms you have learned:
a) Being paid $25, versus being paid $100, for each “A” grade earned in school.
b) Giving praise such as “good work!” versus “it is clear you put a lot of effort into crafting the carefully-considered arguments in this paper.”
c) Giving a toddler a cookie 5 seconds after they shared a toy with another child, versus giving a cookie 6 hours after they shared the toy.
- What is the credit-assignment problem?
d) Receiving 1% bonus credit for a short assignment versus receiving 1% bonus credit for a short assignment after having received 2% bonus credit for the same short assignment on a different topic in the same class one month prior.

Answer 7

a) the bigger the reward, the more likely a response will occur
b) higher quality reinforcer is more affective than lower quality
c) the faster the reward is given, the better
d) the first option is better because receiving a reward that is less than the one previously received is not as favourable

Question 8

What is a schedule of reinforcement? What is the difference between a continuous vs. a partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule? Give real-life examples of continuous and partial reinforcement schedules. Are partial reinforcement schedules less effective due to using less reinforcement?

Answer 8

• schedule of reinforcement = is a program or rule that determines which responses are followed by reinforcers.
• continuous reinforcement schedule = every single response is followed by the outcome
• partial (intermittent) reinforcement = only some responses are followed by the outcome
• example of continuous reinforcement = turning on a kettle
• example of partial reinforcement = gambling
• partial reinforcement schedules are not less effective just because there is less reinforcement.

Question 9

Explain how each of fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval schedules of reinforcement are organized. Give a real-life example of each. Are these continuous, or partial, reinforcement schedules? How could you carry out an FR5 schedule? A VR3 schedule? An FI2 schedule? A VI4 schedule?

Answer 9

• fixed-ratio = only every # of responses results in an outcome
• variable ratio = reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses
• fixed interval = after # of seconds, a response leads to an outcome
• variable interval = after # of seconds, a response produces its output, but the interval length varies (it has an average length)
• these are partial schedules of reinforcement
• FR5 = every 5th response you give an outcome
• VR3 = an average of 3 responses leads to an outcome - the person does not know the exact amount
• FI12 = wait 12 minutes to give an outcome
• V14 = wait an average of 14 minutes to give an outcome - the person does not know when

Question 10

Explain why:
a) VR schedules tend to produce the highest rate of responding.
b) There are post-reinforcement pauses in FR schedules.
c) There are similar patterns of responding between FR and FI schedules, using the term “ratio run.”
d) Interval schedules are more limiting than ratio schedules with respect to the amount of reinforcement that can be obtained (feedback function).

Answer 10

a) due to # of responses determining amount of reinforcement (no waiting for an interval to expire) and no post-reinforcement pauses
b) the person/animal feels content with the reward that they just got
c) it is more predictable
d) intervals impose an upper limit on how many reinforcers may be obtained

Question 11

What are concurrent schedules? What does the Matching Law demonstrate? How can response bias interfere with what is predicted by the Matching Law?

Answer 11

• concurrent schedules = more than one reinforcement schedule is active
• matching law = present two or more variable interval schedules for different behaviours simultaneously
• response bias = one response or reinforcer is preferred over the other - does not match

Question 12

What is the relationship between delay discounting and self-control? According to the concept of delay discounting, how valuable is a reward obtained immediately versus an equivalent reward obtained a month from now? How could you study delay discounting in a lab with animals?

Answer 12

• self-control is choosing a large delayed reward over an immediate small reward and delay discounting is the idea that the value of a reinforcer declines as function of how long you have to wait to obtain it - they happen simultaneously.
• the longer you wait, the less enticing the reward is.
• in the lab, you could give rats a choice between two levers: one that delivers a small, immediate reward (1 food pellet) and one that delivers a larger reward (3 pellets) after some delay. if you give a short delay (0-5 seconds), the rats would choose the larger reward on nearly 100% of choice trials. but if you give a longer delay (20-30 seconds), rats are less likely to wait and will take the smaller immediate reward.

Question 13

Compare Premack’s Principle versus the Response-Deprivation Hypothesis. How does each explain what will be reinforcing? Give a real-life example of a reinforcer that can be explained by each. Can both approaches be used to explain why the same reinforcer works? Try it!

Answer 13

• Premack’s principle = reinforcers involve high-probability activities (can use anything a person does frequently as a reinforcer) and instrumental responses are typically low-probability activities (any behaviour can serve as a reinforcer if it is more likely than the instrumental response)
• response-deprivation hypothesis = restriction of reinforcer activity is what makes it valuable - any activity (high or low probability)
• example of premacks principle = wash the dishes and you can watch some tv after
• example of response deprivation = if you’re not allowed to play a certain sport, you will want to play the sport more and more

Question 14

With respect to the Response Allocation approach, define Behavioural Bliss Point and compare your own behavioural bliss point with that of a friend or family member – what is similar between you, and what is different?

Answer 14

behavioural bliss point = preferred response allocation (pattern of activities) when there are no restrictions

Question 15

How do new reinforcement schedules interact with behavioural bliss point? What ELSE needs to be considered in addition to the one new reinforcement schedule in order to more accurately describe behaviour (hint: adding a new reinforcement doesn’t necessarily remove other possible reinforcements).

Answer 15

• introducing a response-reinforcer contingency can make attaining Bliss Point impossible
• but organisms try to redistribute behaviour to get as close to it as possible (compromise)
• alternate available reinforcements can undermine the reinforcement schedule

Question 16

Briefly describe how psychology can be explored using economics principles within the field of Behavioural Economics in consideration of consumer demand. What is meant by elasticity of demand? What are three factors that help to determine elasticity of demand? Can you think of psychologically-related examples of each?

Answer 16

• economics - relationship between the money we have and prices in the marketplace
• psychology - relationship between time/effort available and time/effort required to earn reinforcements
• elasticity of demand = degree to which prices influences demand, or number of required response influences reinforcers earned - sometimes people continue to buy (or respond) even if the price goes way up
• three factors:
  1. availability of substitutes
  2. price range
  3. income level

Question 17

Describe the basic approach to conducting extinction for classical conditioning and for operant conditioning. How is each form of extinction different from forgetting? Why isn’t extinction the opposite of conditioning?

Answer 17

• extinction for classical conditioning = repeated presentations of CS but no US
• extinction for instrumental conditioning = no longer providing the reinforcer after response
• forgetting does not require the lack of the US for classical conditioning or no reinforcement for responses in instrumental conditioning
• extinction isn’t the opposite of forgetting because it is a new form of learning - you are not unlearning what you already learned

Question 18

What is exposure therapy? Is it linked more closely to classical or to operant conditioning? What does it attempt to accomplish? Describe two real-life applications of exposure therapy.

Answer 18

• exposure therapy = lots of experience with a CS (feared stimulus) in absence of the US (actual aversive stimulus/danger) in order to bring about extinction of the fear response (CR)
• it is linked more closely to classical conditioning
• being afraid of spiders, being afraid of rejection

Question 19

What are two main behavioural effects of extinction in operant conditioning (OC)? What is a frequent (negative) emotional effect of extinction of a reinforcer? How can the emotional effect influence behaviour?

Answer 19

• two main behavioural effects:
  
  1. decrease target response
  2. increase response variability
• frustration is a frequent (negative) emotional effect of extinction of a reinforcer
• emotional effect of extinction energizes behaviour

Question 20

define spontaneous recovery

Answer 20

• rest period after extinction training
• responding comes back

Question 21

what needs to happen between extinction and recovery to allow for this recovery to occur?

Answer 21

• nothing specific is done during rest period to produce recovery

Question 22

example of spontaneous recovery

Answer 22

work on fear of spiders, take a break and then your fear may pop up again down the road

Question 23

define renewal

Answer 23

recovery of conditioned responding after extinction due to change of context

Question 24

what needs to happen between extinction and recovery to allow for this recovery to occur?

Answer 24

conditioned response returns in a new context

Question 25

example of renewal

Answer 25

extinguish fear of spiders in the therapists office, try exposure therapy at home and conditioned fear response comes back in new context

Question 26

define reinstatement

Answer 26

recovery of conditioned behaviour after encountering the US again (even without the CS)

Question 27

what needs to happen between extinction and recovery to allow for this recovery to occur?

Answer 27

after presenting the US alone, they test if the CS brings about the CR again

Question 28

example of reinstatement

Answer 28

1. drug seeking behaviour (lever pressing) for cocaine (reinforcment) 2. extinguish the behaviour (no more cocaine reinforcement for lever) 3. give "free" cocaine -> lots of lever pressing

Question 29

In therapeutic situations, it can be important to prevent the recovery of extinguished responses. Explain how each of the following factors might influence the chance, and/or timing, of recovery of the extinguished response: a) Number of extinction trials b) Whether extinction trials are given massed or spaced c) Whether extinction trials are organized into sessions that repeat d) Amount of time that passes between initial learning and the extinction trials e) Location(s) of extinction trials

Answer 29

a) more extinction trials -> the greater the decline in responding b) presenting extinction stimuli close together in time (massed) produces greater decline than presenting stimuli spread out in time (spaced) c) repeating extinction sessions can reduce recovery of the extinguished behaviour d) extinction trials immediately after acquisition produce a more rapid decline than extinction one day later - but with immediate extinction, spontaneous recovery and renewal are more likely e) reduce or eliminate renewal by conducting extinction in multiple contexts

Question 30

Regarding extinction of operant conditioning, how can extinction be explained as a product of changed associations? Discuss the R-O, S-O, and S-R associations in extinction. What might motivate any changed associations?

Answer 30

- response outcome (R-O) and stimulus outcome (S-O) associations remain intact after extinction - could result from new inhibitory S-R associations - motivated by unexpected absence of reinforcer in extinction

Question 31

Imagine you are attempting to extinguish a dog’s behaviour of jumping up on people – it has been previously reinforced with petting and attention. Apply this example to demonstrate each paradoxical reward effect below. In other words, for each, discuss how the circumstances of the initial conditioning will influence the dog’s resistance to extinction. a) Overtraining Extinction Effect b) Magnitude Reinforcement Extinction Effect c) Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect

Answer 31

a) if there was constant reinforcement before (petting and attention), then the stronger the frustration will be during extinction meaning that extinction will occur more rapidly b) if petting and attention was paired with food of treats to calm the dog down, and it is taken away, this may lead to more frustration and therefore, quicker extinction c) if petting and attention was given randomly (as in not every time the dog jumped), there would be less frustration, less extinction but also more resilience

Question 32

How can Frustration Theory and Sequential Theory explain the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect?

Answer 32

- frustration theory = During partial reinforcement, the animal or human learns to respond despite anticipation of nonreward (anticipation of frustration). This requires a lot of experience with partial reinforcement. Frustration occurs when a trial ends in nonreward in the face of the expectation of reward. This learning leads to persistence in extinction. - sequential theory = memory of nonreward prompts a response "I haven't been rewarded lately, I am due for one!"

Question 33

Compare avoidance and punishment with respect to aversive outcomes and type of avoidance involved. Give an example of each.

Answer 33

- avoidance = make a specific response to prevent an aversive stimulus from occuring - example of avoidance = bring an umbrella when raining to avoid getting wet - punishment = a specific (target) response produces an aversive outcome - example of punishment = if you touch a hot stove, you will get burned

Question 34

Why is Bechterev’s (1913) experiment (as discussed in lecture and the textbook) an example of avoidance behaviour rather than aversive classical conditioning? How could it be transformed into a classical conditioning experiment?

Answer 34

- because there is voluntary behaviour involved. once the person hears the sound warning they decide not to touch the metal plate anymore. - it could be transformed into a classical conditioning experiment if the shock was administered to the hand and then it measured the conditioned response (startle or fear) and then took away the shock but still played the sound

Question 35

Imagine you are running an experiment with a human participant, and you use a CS of a blinking light, a US of a loud horn, and the human’s response to the US is covering their ears. Use this example to explain the difference between an avoidance trial and an escape trial using the discriminated (signaled) avoidance procedure. Be careful to explain the timing of the stimuli and responses correctly. Finally, explain their behaviour (R’s) using the Two-Factor Theory of Avoidance.

Answer 35

- avoidance trial: they see the blinking light, and they cover their ears because they know the horn is coming and they want to avoid it. the CS (light) is then turned off and the US (horn) is not given. This occurs because the response (covering ears) ends the CS (light blinking) and prevents the US (horn) and ends the conditioned response (fear). - escape trial: person does not cover ears when they see the blinking light, then the loud horn will still play until the response (covering ears) occurs and then the cs and us are ended. This occurs because the conditioning of the fear to the CS (light blinking) occurs

Question 36

Give an everyday life example of nondiscriminated, or free-operant, avoidance. Would there be a CS and/or US in this situation?

Answer 36

Changing car's oil every 5000km to avoid engine trouble. No, there would be no CS/signal that you need. Unless it is a reminder in your car. But you can make the response any time.

Question 37

What is learned helplessness and when would it happen? Discuss generalization and inoculation with respect to learned helplessness in real life situations.

Answer 37

- Learned helplessness = the idea that inescapable adverse events impair later avoidance learning. - generalization = research has shown that learned helplessness can carry over to many tasks, impairing learning, decreasing effort and dampening mood - maybe in domestic abuse situation, impacts persons ability to leave the situation, impacts their mood and their overall logical abilities - inoculation = early success at controlling averse stimuli reduces the negative impact of inescapable aversive experiences - in a domestic abuse situation, understanding red flags right away and having support can lead to more success rates of escaping the situation

Question 38

Explain how discriminated (signaled) avoidance procedures can be carried out using rodents in one-way and two-way shuttle apparati.

Answer 38

A divided cage is used - has a small opening between the two sides. Animal avoids or escapes by going to the other side - two-way shuttle avoidance = animal alternates directions between trials - one-way = animal placed on same side of apparatus at start of each trial and always moves to other side

Question 39

Although punishment can be very successful if done right, what are its risks and side effects? Be sure to consider emotional well-being as part of your answer. What are some specific examples of how punishments are often structured poorly in real life? When might it be a good idea to use punishment, despite its drawbacks?

Answer 39

Risks: - suppression of behaviour may be incomplete - responding may recover - procedure may have unintended side effects - emotionally damaging Examples of poor punishment: - gradually increasing intensity - too long after undesired behaviour - not consistently or often enough - accompanied by unintentional reinforcement (giving attention) When to use punishment: - directly after undesired behaviour - using appropriate reinforcement (maybe taking away something good instead of adding something (attention, reading time, doing a different activity with parent)

Question 40

What are timeout, and overcorrection? Give examples of when and how each could be used.

Answer 40

- time out = loss of opportunity for positive reinforcement (telling child to go to their room) - overcorrection = make up for a mistake - but overcorrect it (wash out mouth with soap)

Question 41

What factors influence the effectiveness of a punishment? Design a punishment procedure for a child who hits another child during play. (keep in mind… it’s almost always better to use a reinforcement-based approach!)

Answer 41

Factors: - intensity of punishment - the more intense, the more suppression - timing - punishment is more effective if the aversive stimulus follows the undesired response - frequency - more frequent punishment = more suppression - other reinforcement - if undesired behavior is otherwise reinforced, punishment is less effective I would probably tell the child that it is not nice to hit, show them what they can do instead and if they keep hitting and do not follow redirection, I would tell them that they have to sit away until they are ready to play nicely.

Question 42

How can discriminative punishment actually reduce the effectiveness of punishment across broad situations?

Answer 42

In this type of punishment, punishment is only given in the presence of a discriminative stimulus. This means that the response is suppressed only in the presence of the stimulus

Question 43

Define stimulus control, generalization, and discrimination. What are the potential effects of each on our real-life decisions and behaviours?

Answer 43

- stimulus control = stimuli (S's) in that context come to control the responses - allows you to make appropriate decisions for where to do things and how to behave - generalization = transferring past experiences to new situations - discrimination = the perception of differences between stimuli

Question 44

Which representation(s) allow for sitmulus generalization/discrimination? 1. generalization gradient 2. distributed representation network 3. discrete-component representation

Answer 44

generalization gradient and distributed representation network

Question 45

What are sensory capacity and sensory orientation? Give examples of failures of sensory capacity vs. sensory orientation.

Answer 45

- sensory capacity = which stimuli the organism can physically detect (what is possible) - failure is dogs not being able to see some colours - sensory orientation = which stimuli the organism can detect (which way they are looking/positioned) - failure is a dog not finding the ball because he isn't looking the right way

Question 46

Discuss how overshadowing can influence which stimuli are conditioned. Give a real-life example of one stimulus that could overshadow another. Next, differentiate how these two stimuli would be assessed in overshadowing as stimulus elements vs. configural cues.

Answer 46

Overshadowing can influence which stimuli are conditioned because more salient cues are more easily conditioned and this interferes with learning less sailent cues. An example is learning to read - you notice the pictures rather than words stimulus elements = reading the words first and then looking at the pictures (viewing them as separate) configural cues = viewing the images while reading the words? (viewing them as a whole)

Question 47

Explain what is learned in acquired equivalence. How is the task done? Is this a better example of generalization or discrimination?

Answer 47

- acquired equivalence = when two stimuli can predict the same outcome (and therefore become generalized) even if the stimuli are dissimilar - task: first they shaping, then equivalence training , then new consequents than transfer test - this is a better example of generalization

Question 48

Describe how the hippocampus can be different in people who have schizophrenia. How does this affect acquired equivalence learning?

Answer 48

Abnormal hippocampus -> deficits in using relational information about associations. They fail to transfer associations across related stimuli

Question 49

How are generalization and specificity related to the idea of stereotypes? How can stereotypes be useful? How can they be misused and potentially harmful?

Answer 49

Using stereotypes appropriately requires finding a balance between specificity (knowing how narrowly a given stereotype applies) and generality (knowing how broadly it applies). Not all stereotypes are harmful - bears should generally be considered potentially dangerous certain features of a stereotype may be common to many of the members associated with the stereotype but not to all of them

Question 50

What are the different phases of memory? How does learning fit into these phases? How can each of learning vs. memory be demonstrated behaviourally, in general? How quickly is each formed?

Answer 50

Memory: 1. encoding 2. storage (retention) 3. retrieval - learning can contribute to the acquisition part of encoding - Learning is a change in behaviour and memory is using what was acquired during learning - learning is slow and effortful, memory forms quickly without obvious effort

Question 51

Define skill memory (also known as procedural memory). From what forms of learning does it result?

Answer 51

skill memory = it is nondeclarative and implicit, it improves with practice and it can become long lasting - it results from habit and response learning

Question 52

The vocabulary of skill memories and practice – know these terms and be able to recognize or provide examples/descriptions of each: perceptual-motor skills, cognitive skills, closed skills, open skills, spaced practice, massed practice, constant practice, variable practice, gradual training.

Answer 52

- perceptual motor skills = learned movement patterns guided by sensory inputs (how to hit a curve ball) - cognitive skills = habits of problem solving, using strategies (reading) - closed skills = rote sets of movements (how to use the hockey stick to move the puck around) - open skills = require adjustments based on the environment (how to play hockey) - spaced practice = spacing out practice - massed practice = condensing practice - constant practice = focused on a single skill - variable practice = alternates between a set of skills - gradual training = start with easy versions of the task, slowly increase difficulty

Question 53

Compare the effectiveness and user satisfaction of spaced vs. massed practice.

Answer 53

Spaced practice is better than massed

Question 54

Imagine you are teaching or coaching a skill you have developed yourself – e.g., a sport, a musical instrument, a language, a game… Use as many of the terms above as you can to describe what would be the best way to facilitate learning in your protégé.

Answer 54

I would start out by teaching them something small and comfortable like a closed skill that they may be comfortable with. I would space the practice out by doing 1-2 hours every other day. I would give good quality feedback and would focus on teaching them a variety of closed skills each day (variable practice).

Question 55

For each of the following tests/tasks, briefly describe how it is carried out and what aspect(s) of memory/skill it measures: Tower of Hanoi; serial reaction time task.

Answer 55

- Tower of Hanoi = studies cognitive skills, you cannot put larger disk on top of a smaller one, performance improves not due to physical skill, but cognitive skill (strategy) - serial reaction time task = participants are shown a cue and then press an associated button as fast as possible. Cues usually are given in random order, but a 10-item sequence sometimes occurred. Participants became very fast at the 10-item sequence (could anticipate the next key). When interviewed, the participants generally were not aware of the sequence - could not repeat if asked. This measures implicit learning

Question 56

Compare the development of perceptual-motor skills to that of cognitive skills – consider different ages of humans, and also the capabilities of animals.

Answer 56

Humans learn perceptual-motor skills earlier in life than they do cognitive skills. Many cognitive skills are difficult to acquire without some perceptual-motor skills first. Many different species can learn a variety of perceptual-motor skills, but only a few can progress to learning cognitive skills.

Question 57

Mastery: a) What is the power law of practice and how does it help to explain why expertise/mastery can be so rare? b) Explain the role of feedback in skill learning. And, how was feedback used to break the performance plateau in Hatze’s kicking study? c) What are some arguments against the popularized idea of putting in 10 000 hours to achieve mastery at anything?

Answer 57

a) Gains are rapid at first but decrease proportionate to what has already been learned. Extreme practice is required to gain advanced skill. b) A new/better form of feedback can speed up the gains again. In the kicking task, feedback was given when performance gains were slowing. After gaining this source of feedback, an additional power curve of performance increase occurred. c) Not just anyone can be an expert at anything, it is a balance between talent and effort. And it depends which domain you are trying to improve because different domains require different amounts of talent/effort.

Question 58

Describe Fitts’ three-stage model of skill learning. How would the model explain the process of learning how to perform a choreographed dance?

Answer 58

1. Cognitive stage = performance is based on rules that can be verbalized 2. Associative stage = actions become stereotyped 3. Autonomous stage = movements seem automatic

Question 59

Greatness and talent: when your skill level is high, describe what might lead to “choking under pressure” and changes in visual processing and focus.

Answer 59

When you try to get cognitive about something you normally would do automatically, your performance gets worse.

Question 60

What is meant by skills transfer, and transfer specificity? Describe Thorndike’s identical elements theory using these terms. If you are a good piano player, are you more likely to transfer your skill to accordion playing or guitar playing?

Answer 60

- skills transfer = the generalization of a skill from one context to another - transfer specificity = in general, skills don't transfer well, there are some exceptions, such as for specific movements you are more likely to transfer your piano playing skill to accordion playing because there are the same types of movements involved (closed skills).

Question 61

what do the power law of practice and skill decay have in common?

Answer 61

rapid decay at first, then slow decay over time

Question 62

Describe what is meant by Modal Action Pattern. Give an example of a modal action pattern as observed in animals. Integrating the concept of the sign stimulus, explain what is different about modal action patterns as compared to voluntary behaviours.

Answer 62

modal action pattern = response sequences typical of a particular species example = mating behaviours in sickleback fish sign stimuli are a specific stimulus that elicits a modal action pattern. even if this is removed, the MAP will continue. MAPs are different from voluntary behaviours because they are not learned from experience, they are species specific.

Question 63

How is classical conditioning different from habituation? Define the components of classical conditioning (CS, US, CR, CS) and give an example from everyday life broken down into these components.

Answer 63

Habituation and involves responding to repetitions of just one stimulus. Classical conditioning is associative learning between stimuli. - CS = conditioned stimulus - seeing drug dealer - US = unconditioned stimulus - drug - CR = conditioned response - body expects drug (nervous system depresses) - UR = unconditioned response - body expects drug from taking it

Question 64

What is a conditioned compensatory response? How do conditioned compensatory responses (or conditioned drug tolerance) explain drug addiction, including tolerance and cravings? How do conditioned compensatory responses interact with context to influence risk of overdose? How does sign tracking relate to drug abuse?

Answer 64

A conditioned compensatory response is a CR that is the opposite of the UR, helping to balance/correct for the US/UR reflex. Inject adrenaline (US) -> heart rate increase (UR). Repeat the procedure in the same testing chamber (CS). Eventually, CS comes to produce a decrease in heart rate (CR) that helps maintain homeostasis against expected adrenaline injection. We observe this as tolerance as the testing chamber evokes a CR that weakens the overall effects of the drug. Sign tracking relates to drug addiction because a certain context can signal the availability of a drug.

Question 65

If: CS = sight of package delivery person US = delivery person knocks at the front door CR = fear (dog barking) What procedure could you use to demonstrate, and what would be the outcome of: Habituation Latent inhibition

Answer 65

- habituation = reduction in CR - latent inhibition = has stopped paying attention to the CS

Question 66

If: CS1 = sight of package delivery person CS2 = sound of delivery truck US = delivery person at the front door CR = fear (dog barking) What procedure could you use to demonstrate, and what would be the outcome of: - Blocking - Compound conditioning (is there Overshadowing?) - Sensory preconditioning - Higher order (2nd order) conditioning

Answer 66

- blocking = adding in another CS after pre training with the CS 1 AND CS 2 would block further learning about CS 3. - compound conditoning = CS1 and CS2 are not responded to as much if they are presented together, than if they were to be presented apart. - sensory preconditioning = pairing the CS1 and CS2 together will help generalize to a CS3 ,but won't work if they are not paired initially. - higher order conditoning = A CS1 is paired wtih US to produce a CR, once CS1 elicits a CR, CS1 is paired with a new CS (CS2) - this causes CS2 to also produce the same CR

Question 67

Compare the procedure for higher order conditioning with the procedure for conditioned inhibition. And, how is negative CS-US contingency slightly different from the procedure for conditioned inhibition?

Answer 67

- conditioned inhibition = CS1 is paired with US in first trial, then CS2 is presented with CS1 and the US is omitted. CS2 signals the absence of the US. - negative CS-US contingency = involved just one CS that is negatively correlated with the US

Question 68

What is the difference between S-S learning and S-R learning? How do US devaluation studies differentiate between S-S and S-R learning, and which do they tend to support?

Answer 68

S-S = connection between CS and US S-R = connection between CS and CR If you devalue the US, you do not get the same CR. Therefor the US matters & the S-S association is used.

Question 69

d) Explain how Mackintosh’s model differs from the Rescorla-Wagner model. What can be adjusted in Mackintosh’s model? e) What additional complexity is suggested by the Comparator Hypothesis?

Answer 69

d) mackinstosh focuses on attention rather than weights. e) comparator hypothesis brings the context in as a factor

Question 70

Assess each of the following for whether it can be explained by the Rescorla-Wagner model, and the Mackintosh model (explain why): Latent inhibition Blocking

Answer 70

- latent inhibitoin for mackinstosh = pre-exposure to the CS decreases attetion for that stimulus, making it harder to learn about in the training phase - latent inhibiion for rescorla wagner = cannot account for this - blocking for mackintosh = our limited attention is focused on a cue that we already know predicts the situation - no attention left over to focus on extranseous information - blocking for rescorla wagner = blocking occurs because the second predictive stimulus is redundant for learniing - it does not result in predictive error

Question 71

Compare classical conditioning to operant/instrumental conditioning. What stimuli are involved? What responses are involved? Compare how much control the person/animal has over the responses made.

Answer 71

- classical conditoning = involve responses to stimuli outside the organisms's control - no control - instrumental conditoning = learning situations in which there are consequences of voluntary behaviour - lots of control

Question 72

In the context of instrumental conditioning procedures, separately define each of: reinforcement, punishment, positive, and negative. Redefine each of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment, ensuring consistency with the separate definitions. Give examples of each, ensuring consistency with the definitions.

Answer 72

- positive reinforcement = appetitive stimulus is given (A+ for studying) - positive punishment = aversive stimulus is presented (F for not studying) - negative reinforcement = turns off aversive stimulus (opening umbrella when it is raining) - negative punishment = taking away an appetitive stimulus (getting grounded - takin away freedom)