Midterm Flashcards
Hamas: an overview
Founded in late 1987 under Israeli military occupation in Gaza. Historically opposed to any negotiations with Israel, but willing to respect a cease-fore at various points. Administered Gaza with help of foreign aid, mainly from Qatar. Developed armed wing with help of Iran.
Hamas attack on southern Israel, 7 Oct. 2023
Hamas militants practiced maneuvers jointly with other Palestinian militant groups since 2020. Hamas used sophisticated surveillance of Israeli defences; Israeli defence establishment doubted Hamas would attack. On 7n Oct 3,000 militants from Hamas and allied groups breached Israel’s border fence and quickly overran military bases and civilian towns and settlement. Hamas rocket fire gave militants cover.
What were Hamas objectives on Oct 7?
Revenge: key leaders had spent time in Israeli prisons and lost family members.
Shock: crippling israeli national moral.
Wider War: Hamas apparently hoped to trigger wider war, including Palestinian uprising in West Bank and between Jewish and Arab citizens.
Israeli domestic divisions: unprecedented weakness
Late 2022: PM Netanyahu wins Israeli elections by forming coalition with extreme right-wing politicians. Introduces legislation to weaken authority of Israeli Supreme Court at a time when Netanyahu is under investigation for corruption charges. Anti-overhaul protests consume and divide Israel; soldiers refuse to report to duty; analysts warn domestic divisions increase vulnerability to external enemies.
Israel’s military response after Oct 7
8-9 Oct. 2023: Israel begins aerial bombing campaign on Gaza. Repeated bombing of Zones that Israel’s own military had designated for Palestinians as sanctuaries. 30 Oct. 2023: Israel begins ground invasion of Gaza, seeking to cut it in 2; orders civilians to evacuate northern Gaza.
Cease-fire and hostage deal
22 November: Israel and Hamas agree to four-day cease-fire, which is then extended. Hamas releases 105 hostages (women and children); Israel releases 3 imprisoned Palestinians for every hostage. 1 Dec: Cease-fire collapses; war resumes, even more destructive than before.
Charges of genocide against Israel by South Africa
Brought charges against Israel at the ICJ. January 2024: The ICJ reiterated that all parties to the conflict, including Hamas, remain bound by International humanitarian law, the ICJ called for the release of hostages. The ICJ’s order tilts the balance toward a global order based on justice and international law.
Regional dimensions after Oct 7
Oct 8: Hezbollah begins firing rockets at Israel in support of Hamas; cycle of strikes and counterstrikes begins. US aircraft carrier battlegroup deployed to East Mediterranean. 18 Oct: US Pres. Biden visits Israel. Houthi militants backed by Iran have targeted shipping bound for Israel. Iran as “reluctant escalator”. Netanyahu’s vast unpopularity and crippled credibility make him a dangerous decision maker.
Recent Escalation
31 July: Israel assassinates Hamas chief Ismail Haniyeh in Tehran, top Hezbollah commander Fuad Shukr in Beirut. Iran, Hezbollah vow revenge. 25 August: Israel strikes thousands of Hezbollah rocket sites; Hezbollah fires hundreds of rockets at Israel; Israel strikes more launch positions in Lebanon.
A cease fire?
A cease-fire deal has been on the table since at least May. Israeli PM Netanyahu has refused successive deals, driving a border bargain. 1 Sept: Hamas killing of six hostages triggers widespread anti-government protests across Israel. Netanyahu knows peace may cost him is premiership. US Pres. Biden has pressured Israel to accept cease-fire but has not withheld weapon-shipments.
Early history
Some trace the conflict between Jews and Arabs to the Biblical rivalry between Isaac and Ishmael, sons of Abraham. Many of the Jewish Israeli settlers in the West Bank today see themselves as fulfilling a return to this land and regard the entire territory as theirs by divine right. Philistines (a seafaring people) settled along the coast in the 12th Century BC. They ruled the coastal plain along the Mediterranean Sea from 1150BC-586 AD, and fought frequently with the Hebrews. In 586 AD, the Babylonians conquered the entire region; the Hebrews and Philistines were exiled. Hebrews returned under Persian King Cyrus, who defeated the Babylonians. The area was then conquered by the Greeks, and then by the Romans.
Genesis of Palestine
After crushing a 2nd Century AD Jewish revolt, the Roman occupiers re-named the Land of Israel “Palestine,” derived from Philistia, do de-Judaize it. Diaspora Judaism begins. The area was conquered by the Prophet Muhammad and his Caliphs in the 7th Century; Muslims formed the majority until the 20th Century. Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire, 1517-1917. Under the rule of the British Mandate, 1920-1948.
Pre-Modern Muslim-Jewish Relations
As the Prophet Muhammad began first wave of conquest in 7th Century, Jewish tribes in Mecca and Medina refused to submit to Islam, and were conquered. Islamic rule extended outward across most of the Middle East and North Africa. Jews living under
Islamic rule, from the Prophet’s time until the fall of the Ottoman Empire, were denied full rights but, with Christians, enjoyed certain protections. Under the Ottoman Empire (1517-1917), Jewish and Christian communities were granted some local autonomy under the millet system.
The emergence of Zionism
Zionists believe in and support the quest by Jews to ‘return to Zion’; in the modern period, this implied also support for the creation of a Jewish state in that area.
Zionism’s emergence in historical context
Context: Modern nationalism surged across 19th century Europe after the French Revolution of 1789. Politically oppressed communities embraced this idea as emancipatory.
Nationalism
Groups should unite around a common identity and seek territorial sovereignty and political independence within a nation-state.
Issues in early Zionism
The basic premise of Zionism was the same as for other nationalisms: territorial sovereignty and political independence. Zionism tends to view Judaism as an ethnic identity as well as a religion.
Article 20 of the Palestine National Charter of he PLO declares
Claims of historical ties of Jews with Palestine are incompatible with the facts of history and the true conception of what constitutes statehood. Judaism, being a religion, is not an independent nationality. Nor do Jews constitute a single nation with an identity of its own; they are citizens of the states to which they belong.
Judaism - religion, nationality, race?
Judaism in its texts, prayers and traditions preserved a connection to the biblical Land of Israel. Jewish communities, especially in Europe, faced systematic discrimination which often turned deadly - full citizenship was impossible.
Early Jewish Emigration and birth of Zionsim
In small numbers, Jews had been emigrating to Palestine from Europe and the Middle East for centuries for religious reasons. The four “holy cities,” Hebron, Safed, Tiberias, and Jerusalem, had Jewish populations dating back to antiquity. Jews in Palestine were about 7% of total population. By 1880s, Jewish emigrants fleeing programs in Eastern Europe established settlements and sought to buy land from Arab neighbours.
Theodor Herzl, Early Zionist
An Austrian journalist who covered the 1894 trial of French Army officer Alfred Drefys, wrongly convicted of spying for Germany. French mobs chanted “Death to the Jew!”. Antisemitism in a modern Europe democracy convinced Herzl that jews would never live free of oppression in Europe. In 1896 he wrote “The Jews’ State”, envisioning the creation of a Jewish homeland. Early Zionists considered various options, but Palestine resonated the most.
First Zionist Congress in Basle, Switzerland (8/1897) resolved:
Zionism seeks to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law. The congress contemplates the following means to the attainment of this end:
1. The promotion by appropriate means of the settlement in Palestine of Hewish farmers, artisans, and manufacturers.
2. The organization and uniting of the whole Jewry by means of appropriate institutions, both local and international, in accordance with the laws of each country.
3. The strengthening and fostering of Jewish national sentiment and national consciousness.
Labour Zionism
Emphasized a secular Jewish nationalism, tending to promote coexistence with Palestine Arabs. Rooted in more leftist, trade unionist, sometimes even communist.
Revisionist Zionism
Emphasized a militaristic approach to the conquest of Palestine; did not value or seek coexistence with Palestinians. Much more right wing.
Religious Zionism
Prioritized Jewish settlement in the Biblical Land of Israel as a fulfilment of the divine promise to the Jewish people. Limited relevance in 20th century. Motivated by notion of Jewish identity, not only as a secular ethnic identity, but also as an active religious component of political life.
“Zionism”: A volatile word
In 1975, the UN overwhelmingly passed a motion equating Zionism with racism - rescinded in 1991. In some contexts, the term “Zionist” implies that Israel is supported by “the mythological powers supposedly available to world Jewry”. Post-second Intifada, “Zionist” has often been deployed as a slur outside the Middle East.
The Emergence of Arab Nationalism
At the beginning of the 20th century, Arab nationalism began to emerge, reflecting European notions of nation-states rooted in national identity. Arab resentment of the Ottoman Empire grew after the 1908 “Young Turk” revolution sought to centralize Ottoman rule. The Arab revolt (1916-17) against Ottoman rule helped crystallize a sense of Arab nationalism based on a vision of self-determination. By the early 20th Century, some Arab nationalists foresaw a clash with Zionism.
Palestinian national Identity (Khalidi)
The years 1917-23 were critical for the formation of a distinct Palestinian national identity. The lack of a Palestinian nation-state has proved critical in shaping overlapping “historical” narratives, rather than an official one. It has also prevented the emergence of a linear historical narrative culminating in successful statehood. Khalidi’s importance as a scholar is to shape that narrative in the absence of a Palestinian state. Nationalism as being defined by it’s “Other”
Palestinian identity within the Arab world
Syrian Ba’athists have argued that Palestinian identity and territory should be subsumed by Greater Syria. From 1948-67, Jordan controlled the West Bank and governed over its Palestinian inhabitants. “From a radical Islamist perspective, Palestinian-centered nationalism is tantamount to heresy because it splits the broader Muslim community.
Religious Components of Palestinian Nationalism
Muslims and Christians alike viewed Palestine as the Holy Land. Muslims fought Christian Crusaders over control of the Holy Land and Jerusalem, underscoring its value. Point that Khalidi is making is that prior to the advent of Zionism in1948, Palestinians already saw themselves as Palestinians. Local Arabs in Palestine already had resentment of Christian European imperialism in the area - they. were not just passive inhabitants of the land waiting for someone to come colonize them.
Palestinian Identity during Ottoman Rule
There were already expressions of Palestinian identity, as well as expressions of fears with regard to the looming emergence of Zionism.
The Hardening of Palestinian Identity
Before WWI, elements of national identity were present. Many Arab inhabitants of Palestine felt strong local attachment and pride to their city or village of origin. The British Mandate brought Arab residents to “imagine” themselves as part of a single community. Urbanization, wage labour, the spread of the printed press and education, all contributed to this.
The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence, 1915-1916
As British fought Ottoman Turks, Sharif Husain of Mecca wrote to the British High Commissioner in Cairo, sir Henry McMahon. Husayn expressed the national aspirations of Arab peoples and sought British support for their independence struggle. McMahon resisted Husayn’s territorial claims but committed Great Britain to assisting Arab peoples. The British wanted to encourage a general Arab revolt against the Turks to assist their war effort. They hoped to safeguard the Suez Canal.
McMahon’s pledge to Husayn
- Subject to the above modifications, Great Britain is prepared to recognize and support the independence of the Arabs.
- Great Britain will guarantee the Holy Places against all external aggression.
- Great Britain will give go the Arabs her advice and will assist them to establish suitable forms of government in those various territories.
- It is understood that the Arabs have decided to seek the advice and guidance of Great Britain only.
The Sykes-Picot Agreement, May 1916
As the Ottoman Empire fell, the UK and France made a secret pact to carve up their respective spheres of influence in the Middle East. This reflected British and French colonial expansion worldwide. Palestine came under British control. The UK was given control over Palestinian ports Haifa and Acre. Opened up the Middle East as a market for British and French goods, to be imported via the ports and railways. Committed both countries to prevent any other power from pursuing strategic interests in the region. Designated Palestine as an area of joint British, French, and Russian control.
The Balfour Declaration, 2 Nov. 1917
The result of Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann negotiating with the British government. Represented a turning point for Zionist aspirations - political importance, not just cultural-psychological. Key British policymakers debated whether the Balfour Declaration contradicted promises made in the McMahon-Husayn agreement. Afterward, Husayn himself called upon the Arab population to “welcome the Jews as brethren and cooperate with them”.
The Faisal-Weizmann Discussions, 1918
At the Versailles Peace Conference, Sharif Husayn’s son the Emir Faisal demanded independence for Arab peoples. Faisal also agreed that “Palestine should be given separate status as the prescribed area of the Zionist jews.” Faisal called Arabs and Jews “cousins in race” and said “the Jewish movement is national and not imperialist.” Faisal met with Weizmann; corresponded with World Zionist Organization representative Felix Frankfurter. These peaceful ideas were mainly expressed in letters written in English, which Faisal could not read. In 1929, as King of Iraq, Faisal denied having ever said these things.
The Versailles Peace Conference and the King-Crane Commission, 1919
In keeping with the broader aim of promoting self-determination worldwide, the Versailles Conference addressed the Palestine question through the King-Crane Commission. It determined that a European power should govern Syria (including Palestine) as a “sacred trust” under the League of Nations, pending its eventual independence. After meeting with zionist leaders, the Commission concluded that the extreme Zionist program must be greatly modified and recommended limiting Jewish immigration.
The British Conquest
WWI brought economic and cultural upheaval to Palestine, as Ottoman Turks fought the British. Jerusalem fell to British forces in November 1917. Palestinians became aware of Sykes-Picot Agreement and British support for Zionism. They stood in solidarity with Arab nationalism as the British and French took over from the Ottomans across Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Palestine. By 1920, the British had consolidated control of Palestine, and received the Mandate at the San Remo Conference.
The British Mandate (1920-1948)
The League of Nations awarded the trusteeship of Palestine to the British at the San Remo Conference, came into operation in 1923. The Mandatory government was given full powers of legislation and of administration. It aimed to safeguard the civil and religious rights of all the inhabitants of Palestine. But also aimed to establish such political, administrative, and economic conditions as will secure the establishment of the Jewish national home.
Britain and the “Much-Too-Promised Land”
With the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, Sykes-Picot Agreement and Balfour Declaration, had the British made a series of contradictory promises to different parties? “These competing wartime promises led to exaggerated and incompatible expectations among Arabs, Palestinians, and Zionists alike, aggravating already existing tensions and mutual suspicions” (Caplan).
Early Palestinian Political Organization
As the British established their rule and Zionist political organizations became centralized, the Palestinians developed their own organizations. The Palestine Arab Congress and Supreme Muslim Council were founded int he early 1920s These served as intermediaries with the British, and sent delegations abroad. There were thus two “states within a state”.
Early Palestinian-Zionist clashes
There were frequent tensions between Zionist settlements and Arab villages in the Galilee region; each side had its armed militants. In the context of the 1920 Franco-Syrian War, Arab militias suspected the Jews of siding with the French. As Arab militias insisted on searching Jewish settlements for French spies, clashes broke out. On 1 March 1920, 8 Jews and 5 Arabs were killed in a clash at the Jewish settlement of Tel Hai, which was then burnt down.
Violence and the Mandate’s Role
On 4-7 April 1920, rioting killed 5 Jews and 4 Arabs and injured hundreds during the Palestinian Nebi Musa festival. British troops did not intervene, undermining Jewish and Arab trust in them. From a Palestinian perspective, the British Mandate favoured the Zionists and advanced Britain’s own imperial aims by promoting them. Zionists regarded the British as unreliable, and often pro-Arab.
Into the 1920s
1922 Churchill White Paper specified that “a Jewish nationals home in Palestine” did not encompass control over all of Palestine, but rather, the “further development of the existing Jewish community” of 80,000. To assuage Arab fears, UK govt. pledges to “foster the establishment of a full measure of self-government in Palestine”. Episodes of inter-communal violence continued throughout the 1920s. Zionist leadership pressed ahead with immigration, land purchase, and military preparedness. Zionists argued that they were helping to develop the land, bringing benefits to all its inhabitants; Arabs rejected this notion.
Rising Arab-Jewish tensions, 1929
Fear and loathing between Jews and Arabs was exacerbated by inflammatory statements and publications on both sides. This culminated the violence of August 1929: Arab rioters attacked Jewish neighborhoods and settlements across Palestine; Jews retaliated; British police intervened, mainly on Jews’ behalf.
The Passfield White Paper
As a result of the 1929 violence, the British government issued a “White” (policy) paper limiting Jewish immigration to Palestine. It imposed restrictions on the Jewish purchase of Arab property, finding that this disenfranchised Arab peasants. The British government “clarified” the White Paper in a letter to Chaim Weizmann, which Arabs derided as the “Black Letter”.
The 1936-39 Revolt
1933-36: Over 164,000 Jewish immigrants arrive, fleeing Nazism.
1935: British police kill Palestinian leader
1936: Jewish population 370,000 - 27% of Palestine population
May 1936: Mufti of Jerusalem calls for a Palestinian general strike
1937: Uprising becomes more militant, British forces crush it
Over 5,000 Palestinian Arabs dead and over 10,000 injured
Izz ad-Din al-Qassam (1882-1935)
1882: Born in Jableh, Syria
1916-1920: Supported Libyan rebellion vs. Italians, led Syrian rebellion vs. French. Moved to Palestine after French victory. Organized armed bands striking at British, Jewish targets. 1935: killed by British forces after a manhunt.
Aftermath of the 1936-39 Revolt
1937 Peel Commission: Found the Mandate to be unworkable and recommended partition of the land between Arabs and Jews. Arab leaders and organizations rejected the idea unanimously. Zionist leaders were more receptive to partition. 1939 White Paper: Called for the establishment of an independent Palestine within ten years; limited Jewish immigration to 75,000 over 5 years; further immigration would be subject to Arab veto. Hajj Amin Husseini rejected it; moderate Palestinian Arab leaders accepted it; Jewish leadership rejected it unanimously.
Into the 1940s: militarization
After the 1936-39 revolt, both sides increasingly militarized. The main Zionist militia was the semi-clandestine Haganah (“Defence”). A well-organized force that gained strength with the return of Jewish soldiers from the British 8th Army.
Militant right-wing Zionism
Smaller extremes Zionist militias, the Irgun and Stern Gang, perpetrated terror attacks against Arabs and British. Irgun leader Menachem Begin became PM of Israel in 1977. Stern Gang leader Yitzhak Shamir became PM in 1986.
Zionist institutions
Zionist political institutions - the Jewish Agency and the General Federation of Jewish Labour formed institutional structure. these were more unified than their Palestinian Arab counterparts, the Arab Executive Committee and Arab Higher Committee.
The British Mandate and Unequal Development
The British Mandate authorities granted greater economic opportunity. to the Jews than to Arabs in Palestine. 1917-48: Palestine electric grid designed by Zionist engineer; Jewish settlement areas get privileged access, and electrification is key component of “Zionist state building”. 1930: Contract to extract potash from Dead Sea denied to Palestinian entrepreneurs and awarded to Zionist company. 1937: During Peel Commission, ‘Commissioners expressed concern over the increasingly intricate institutional life of the Yishuv, which by 1937 looked like “another government being set up alongside the existing government”.
Towards Partition, 1938-47
1938: At the Evian Conference, world powers agreed to do nothing in response to Jews fleeing Nazi persecution.
1945: The Holocaust was a turning point, bringing international sympathy to the Zionist cause and creating massive Jewish refugee flow.
1946-7: Britain restricts Jewish immigration from Europe to Palestine with a naval blockade, interns Jewish refugees in Cyprus.
15 May. 1947: UN creates UN Special Committee on Palestine, sends delegation to Palestine to investigate; boycotted by the Arab Higher Committee.
Emergence of Arab States
1943: Lebanon independent
1944: Arab League founded - member states reject partition plan
1946: Transjordan independent
1946: Syria independent
Feb. 1948” Transjordan annexes Arab part of Palestine (present-day West Bank) with British support
1941-48: anti-Jewish riots, many motivated by anti-Zionist sentiment, kill hundreds in Iraq, Egypt, Libya, Yemen.
UN Resolution 181
29 Nov. 1947: Based on UNSCOP plan, UN recommends partition of Palestine between Arab and Jewish populations. Recommends an economic union, as well as protections for minority rights. The plan allocated 56% of land to Zionists, although Jews owned 6% of land and comprised 33% of Palestine’s population at that point. The Jewish Agency accepted the plan; Palestinian Arab leaders and organizations, as well as Arab states, rejected all partition.
End of British Mandate and War
1948: Jewish population of Palestine reaches 650,000 (37%)
14 May 1948: The British Mandate set to end; David Ben-Gurion declares Israeli independence, becomes PM
15 May: Armies of various Arab states and irregular Arab Liberation Army launch an invasion. Arab armies undermined by lack of unity, mutual suspicions.
Opening stages of 1948 War
Feb. 1948: Arab Liberation Army blockage of Jerusalem’s 100,000 Jews inflicts heavy losses on Haganah, forces it to evacuate Jews.
9 April 1948: during Jerusalem siege, Irgun and Stern Gang attack Arab village, killing 107-200 civilians. Yishuv leadership. condemned attack; but impact terrorized Arab population, contributed to their flight. May 1948: Egyptian army advances, excepts to win war in two weeks. Jordanian Arab Legion takes most of West Bank.
Tide of Battle Turns (1948)
Initial Israeli objective was to survive war vs. combined Arab armies. June 1948: UN imposes four-week cease fire. Israel procures weapons shipment form Czechoslovakia; improves soldiers’ training; centralizes army command; plans next phase of war.
Israel Advances (1948 war)
Dec. 1948, Haganah (now IDF) controls entire area designated for Jews under UN Res. 181, plus 60% of Palestinian areas - British threaten to intervene. Around 700,000 Palestinians flee or are expelled, most to refugee camps in Jordan, Gaza, Syria, and Lebanon. UN Resolution 194 affirms refugees’ “right of return”.
Early Israeli-Arab Negotiations
1948 Armistice agreements left Israel and Arab states in state of war. Israel now sought to preserve status quo - especially its Jewish demographic majority. 1949: UN sponsored negotiations between Israel and Arab states at Lausanne - went nowhere. 1949-1951: Israel and Transjordan negotiate - Israel willing to allow Jordanian corridor to Mediterranean, Jordan willing to recognize Israel. Ended with King Abdullah’s assassination in 1951. In early 1950s, Israel and Syria also undertook serious but unsuccessful peace talks. Israeli leadership divided: seek security territorial control or through acceptance abroad.
Early years post-1948
1949: Arab states reach truce agreements with Israel (except Iraq). Conflict switches from inter-communal to inter-state. 1950-56: cross-border raids into Israel by Palestinian militants, mainly on civilians. Israel launches retaliatory cross-border raids. 1953: IDF assault on West bank town kills 69, mainly women and children - draws UN/US condemnation.
Cold War and Regional Escalation
into the 1950s, the Cold War and Arab-Israeli conflict both intensified. US and USSR competed for allies across the world. 1952: Army officers overthrow Egypt’s King Farouk. 1954: Gamal Nasser becomes President - he promoted pan-Arabist ideology (a secular Arab nationalism that was very influential through the Middle East).
The Conflict, 1954-55
Nasser conducts secret dialogue with Israel, concludes that peace is impossible. 1955: In response to Fedayeen raid, Israel attacks Egyptian army base in Gaza, inflicting heavy losses. Fearing Israeli military power, Nasser doesn’t retaliate.
The 1955 Czech-Egyptian arms deal
1950: US, UK, and France sign Tripartite Declaration agreeing to preserve 1949 borders in the Near East and refraining from big arms sales to region. Nasser thought Egypt needed to be able to match Israeli military; Eisenhower wouldn’t sell him weapons. Nasser concluded a deal with Czechoslovakia for over $250M worth of Soviet weapons. Egypt became strongest military power in Arab World and most important soviet client outside of Warsaw Pact.
Impacts of Egypt’s 1955 arms deal
The deal set off an arms race in the Middle East, and started a pattern of great power arms sales to Global South clients in conflict zones. Israel’s main weapons suppliers were UK and France. Britain feared threats to its interests in the region. Nasser was emboldened to assert Egyptian power. Israel saw Egypt as an existential threat; began preparing for war.
The 1956 Suez Crisis
1950: Egypt blocks Suez Canal to Israeli shipping
26 July 1956: Nasser announces decision to nationalize Suez Canal, owned and operated by UK-French consortium; blocks Straits of Tirana to Israeli shipping. France also resents Egyptian support for rebels in Algerian War. The UK, France and Israel made a secret plan to attack Egypt.
Suez War: The Invasion
29 Oct. 1956: Israeli troops advance into Sinai Peninsula. 31 Oct. UK and French planes bomb Egyptian airfields. Israeli forces rapidly advance, capturing Sinai Peninsula. British and French forces land in Port Said, secure it by 7 Nov.
International Response to Suez Canal Invasion
US President Eisenhower was furious with British, French and Israeli adventurism, and he feared Arab states’ reactions if he stayed silent. Threatened to sink UK economy by selling off UK government bonds. Forced immediate withdrawal by all 3 armies. Voted with USSR on UN resolution condemning the invasion, demanding withdrawal, and creating a peace-keeping force, UNEF. Marked a decline in British power. Nasser’s popularity rose in Egypt and Arab world. Israel regained shipping lane through Straits of Tiran,
Impacts of Suez War on Arab-Israeli conflict
Soviet regional influence increased. USSR became Syria’s superpower patron and weapons supplier. Israeli-French relations strengthened; France became Israel’s main weapons supplier and secretly provided Israel with key nuclear weapons technology. Regional arms race escalated. Cross-border skirmishes continued between Israel and Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan.
The Security Dilemma
States have incomplete information about each other’s capabilities and motives. In the absence of perfect information, states are forced to fear the worst about each other’s intentions. This causes them to prepare for the worst-case scenario: War. This explanation is based on perception. Stems from rational-choice theory, which has assumptions about people as rational actors.
The Conflict Spiral: June 1967
In weeks before June 1967 Arab-Israeli war, both sides took steps to escalate tensions: Egypt sent army divisions to the border with Israel; closed the Straits of Tran to Israeli shipping; Israel mobilized its army. Fearing heavy losses if forced to defend, Israel attacked first.
The Conflict Spiral
States usually prepare for war for purely defensive purposes. Yet their adversaries may perceive their defensive moves as being offensive. Neither side trusts the other, or knows the other’s intentions; both sides prepare for war. This can trigger a war even when neither side wants one.
Deepening Cold War dynamics - 1967 war
After the 1956 war, the USSR became the predominant superpower in the region through arms sales and assistance to Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. The Middle East gave the USSR leverage over oil supplies and appoint from which to strike southern Europe. After its Algeria war ended in 1962, French President sought rapprochement with Arab states, began distancing from Israel. Under JFK, US moved away from Eisenhower’s even-handed policy towards region, began selling limited “defensive” arms to Israel.
Worsening Arab-Israeli tensions - 1967 war
1964: In Cairo summit, Arab League decides to divert headwaters of Jordan river to punish Israel for diverting Lake Tiberius waters. Jan. 1966 - June 1967: 120 Palestinians armed incursions into Israel from Syria and Jordan.
Nov. 1966: Israeli forces assault Jordanian town of Samua.
April 1967: Aerial battle between Israel and Syria downs six Syrian jets.
The road to war - 1967
12 May: Israeli army chief Rabin threatens to invade Syria and topple government in response to guerrilla attacks.
13 May: USSR tells Egypt that Israel is concentrating 11 to 13 brigades on Syrian border - this is false
14 May: Egypt responds by mobilizing army into the Sinai Peninsula.
16 May: Nasser demands withdrawal of 3,400 UN peacekeepers acting as a buffer between Egyptian and Israeli forces.
19 May: Egyptian forces in Sinai increase
22 May: Egypt closes Straits of Tirana to Israeli shipping - cause for war for Israel.
30 May: Nasser signs defence pact with Jordan
Why would the Soviets give Egypt false intelligence? (Parker)
Soviets wanted Nasser to challenge Israelis, deter them from attacking Syria. The Israelis spread disinformation to scare Syria; Soviets believed it and warned Egypt. Other scholars: USSR feared Israel’s nuclear program and sought to provoke Israel into war, USSR was wrong about Israeli mobilization but correct that Israel was planning war with Syria.
Escalation and Misperception: Did Nasser want war?
25 May: Nasser in speech at Egyptian Air Force headquarters: “The Jews threaten war; we tell them welcome, we are ready for war”. 26 May: Nasser in a speech to Arab Trade Unionists: “We felt we are strong enough, that if we were to enter a battle with Israel, with God’s help, we could triumph… The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel.”
Nasser’s misperception
Egyptian generals believed their numerically superior forces would beat Israel. Nasser and his own advisors saw Israel as a create of the US, helpless on its own. Nasser saw escalation as win-win: Egypt would either win at war or gain a strategic advantage if peace held.
The international context of 1967 war
As tensions mount, French warns Israel against attacking first. US President tells Israel it “would no be alone unless it decides to go it alone”. 24 May: Chief of Israeli foreign intelligence secretly flies to Washington and gets “amber light’ from Johnson, implying that Israel can attack first but the US won’t join if Soviets intervene.
The eve of War - 1967
27 May: Soviets try to prevent war, fearing wider showdown with US.
29 May: Israel invites Soviet ambassador to visit Syrian border and see that there is no troop mobilization; he refuses.
28 May: Two Egyptian jets penetrate Israeli airspace unchallenged.
1 June: To calm domestic fears, Israeli government appoints ex-general as Defence Minister.
War timeline
5 June: Israeli Air Force wipes out most of Egyptian, Syrian, Jordanian Air Forces - Syria, Iraq and Jordan launch counterstrikes.
6 June: Israeli tanks and infantry capture Gaza Strip; invade deep into Sinai Peninsula; invade West Bank.
7 June: Israeli forces capture Old City of Jerusalem; Nasser turns down UN cease-fire proposal.
8 June: Egypt accepts UN cease-fire; Israel completes capture of West Bank
9 June: Israel attacks Syrian forces on Golan Heights
10 June: Israel captures Golan Heights; Syria accepts cease fire.
Aftermath of the 1967 war
1 September 1967: the Arab League meets in Khartoum and adopts a resolution enshrining the “three No’s”: no peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, no negotiations with it.
UN Resolution 242 (22 Nov. 1967)
UN Security Council unanimously passes Res. 242: the template of “land for peace”; its provisions include:
1) “inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war”
2) Full Israeli withdrawal from territory occupied in recent conflict.
3) Right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries
4) A just settlement of the refugee problem
5) Guarantee of territorial inviolability and full independence of every state in the area through measures including demilitarized zones.
Rise of Palestinian national movements
1964: Arab League creates an organization to represent Palestinians: Palestine National Council (PNC) and Palestine Liberation Organization founded.
PNC charter called for eliminating Israel and establishing independent Palestinian state; made no mention of religion.
1967: After war, Palestinian groups decided they could not rely on Arab States to defeat Israel.
Emergence of Palestinian militancy
Palestinians again came to the fore of the conflict, non-state actors grew in importance. By sponsoring/founding various Palestinian armed groups, Arab states could attack Israel indirectly (proxy war) and build their own prestige among Arab states and domestically. Gradual erosion replaces direct confrontation as Arab strategy vs. Israel.
Black September, 1970
Jordan’s King Hussein orders army to crush Palestinian groups, reassert control over territory. Over 9 days, Jordanian forces kill 3,500 Palestinian combatants and civilians. Arafat calls for Hussein to be overthrown. King Hussein expels all Palestinian groups from Jordan. PLO and other groups relocate to Lebanon, attack Israel from there.
The PLO into the 1970s
1970-80: From Lebanon, Palestinian militants kill hundreds of Israelis, mainly civilians, in attacks on school buses, apartment buildings, airports, etc. Israeli retaliatory strikes hit militant bases, refugee camps, killing militants and civilians alike. 1972: PLO’s Black September faction takes Israeli athletes hostage at Munich Olympics, killing 11. Israel kills most Munich planners and perpetrators. Israeli strategic focus shifts from Arab States to Palestinian militants.
The strategic logic of terrorism
Using spectacular violence to convey a political message. Striking fear among a country’s population. Often targets civilians. Perpetrated by non-state actors.
Yasser Arafat, PLO Chairman (1929-2004)
1959: Co-founded Fatah
1967: Joined PLO
1969: Chair of Palestine National Council
1974: addresses UN General Assembly: “I come bearing the olive branch in one hand and the freedom fighter’s gun in the other.”
1974: At Arab League summit in Rabat, PLO declared sole legitimate representative of Palestinian people.
