Midterm Flashcards
The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the lifespan. Most development involves growth, although it also includes decline brought on by aging and dying.
development
produce changes in an individual’s physical nature.
BIOLOGICAL PROCESS
refer to changes in the individual’ s thought, intelligence, and language.
COGNITIVE PROCESS
involve changes in the individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality.
SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESS
the number of years that have elapsed since birth.
Chronological Age
a person’s age in terms of biological health.
Biological Age
an individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age.
Psychological Age
refers to social roles and expectations related to a person’s age.
Social Age
focuses on the scientific study of the systematic processes of change and stability in people.
Human Development
Scientific study of processes of change and stability throughout the human lifespan.
Human Development
is considered to be from “womb to tomb,” comprising the entire human life span from conception to death.
Life-span Development
Concept of human development as a lifelong process, which can be studied scientifically.
Life-span Development
Growth of body and brain, including patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health.
Physical development
Pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
Cognitive development
- A concept or practice that may appear natural and obvious to those who accept it but that in reality is an invention of a particular culture or society.
- Division of the life span into periods.
Social construction
Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships.
Psychosocial development
Differences in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes.
Individual differences
can be conceptualized as the genetic roll of the dice.
Heredity
Inborn traits or characteristics inherited from the biological parents.
Heredity
Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development.
Environment
Unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes.
Maturation
a household unit consisting of one or two parents and their children, whether biological, adopted, or stepchildren.
Nuclear family
a multigenerational network of grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and more distant relatives.
Extended family
a family structure in which one parent (most commonly the father) is married to multiple spouses, is even more unusual
Polygamy
based on family income and the educational and occupational levels of the adults in the household.
Socioeconomic status (SES)
Combination of economic and social factors describing an individual or family, including income, education, and occupation.
Socioeconomic status (SES)
A novel coronavirus disease causing fatigue, loss of sense of smell, fever, and respiratory distress; the source of the 2019 pandemic.
COVID-19
refers to a society’s or group’s total way of life, including its customs, traditions, laws, knowledge, beliefs, values, language, and physical products, from tools to artworks. All of the behavior and attitudes that are learned, shared, and transmitted among members of a social group.
Culture
A culture in which people tend to prioritize personal goals ahead of collective goals and to view themselves as distinct individuals.
Individualistic cultures
A culture in which people tend to prioritize collaborative social goals ahead of individual goals and to view themselves in the context of their social relationships.
Collectivistic culture
consists of people united by a distinctive culture, ancestry, religion, language, or national origin, all of which contribute to a sense of shared identity and shared attitudes, beliefs, and values.
Ethnic group
Ethnic groups with national or cultural traditions different from the majority of the population.
Ethnic minorities
An analytic framework focused on how a person’s multiple identities combine to create differences in privilege or discrimination.
Intersectionality
A grouping of humans distinguished by their outward physical characteristics or social qualities from other groups. Not a biological construct.
Race
A group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their formative period.
Historical generation
A group of people born at about the same time.
Cohort
Instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the mother.
Imprinting
Specific time when a given event or its absence has a specific.
Critical period
The perspective that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and regulation; and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together
LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE
Children grasp experiences and this input molds them over time. (external)
Reactive development
People create experiences and are motivated to learn
about the world around them. (internal)
Active development
early adulthood is not the endpoint of development; rather, no age period dominates development.
Development is Lifelong
Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions. Even within a dimension, there are many components.
Development is Multidimensional
Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a dimension expand and others shrink.
Development is Multidirectional
(people smart)
- Plasticity means the capacity for change.
Development is Plastic
Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an interest in unlocking the mysteries of development through the lifespan
Developmental Science is Multidisciplinary
All development occurs within a context, or setting. Contexts include families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhoods, university laboratories, countries, and so on.
Development is Contextual
These influences include biological processes such as puberty and menopause.
Normative age-graded influences
are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances.
Normative history-graded influences
are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual’s life.
Nonnormative Life events
the mastery of life often involves conflicts and competition among three goals of human development.
Development involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss -
a set of logically related concepts or statements that seek to describe and explain development and to predict the kinds of behavior that might occur under certain conditions.
Theory
Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research.
Hypotheses
views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli.
MECHANISTIC MODEL
sees people as active, growing organisms who set their own development in motion.
ORGANISMIC MODEL
Change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, size of vocabulary.
Quantitative change
is discontinuous and marked by the emergence of new phenomena that could not be easily predicted on the basis of past functioning.
Qualitative change
View of human development as shaped by unconscious forces that motivate human behavior.
Psychoanalytic perspective
In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of childhood personality development in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals.
Psychosexual development
argued that development was the result of learning, a relatively long-lasting change based on experience or adaptation to the environment.
Learning perspective
is a mechanistic theory that describes observed behavior as a predictable response to experience. Behaviorists consider development as reactive and continuous.
BEHAVIORISM
a type of learning in which a response (salivation) to a stimulus (a bell) is elicited after repeated association with a stimulus that normally elicits the response (food).
Classical conditioning
- Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences.
- Learning based on reinforcement or punishment.
Operant conditioning
the person acts on the world as the world acts on the person.
Reciprocal determinism
Updated version of social learning theory
Social Cognitive theory
This perspective encompasses both organismic and mechanistically influenced theories
Cognitive perspective
Jean Piaget developed the cognitive stage theory that reintroduced the concept of scientific inquiry into mental states.
Piagetian Approach
create categories, such as birds, by observing the characteristics that individual members of a category, such as sparrows and cardinals, have in common.
Organization
Piaget’s term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations.
Schemes
Piaget’s term for how children handle new information in light of what they already know.
Adaptation
taking in new information and incorporating it into existing cognitive structures.
Assimilation
adjusting one’s cognitive structures to fit the new information.
Accommodation
a constant striving for a stable balance motivates the shift between assimilation and accommodation.
Equilibration
focused on the social and cultural processes that guide children’s cognitive development
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
seeks to explain cognitive development by analyzing the processes involved in making sense of incoming information and performing tasks effectively.
Information-Processing Approach
development can be understood only in its social context.
Contextual perspective
focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of behavior. Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, it draws on findings of anthropology, ecology, genetics, ethology, and evolutionary psychology to explain the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior for an individual or species.
EVOLUTIONARY / SOCIOBIOLOGICAL
is the study of the adaptive behaviors of animal species in natural contexts.
Ethology
The process by which a behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
Reinforcement
—The process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of the repetition.
Punishment
Theory that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models.
Social Learning Theory
—Bandura’s term for bidirectional forces that
affect development.
Reciprocal Determinism
—Learning through watching the behavior of
others.
Observational Learning
—Sense of one’s capability to master
challenges and achieve goals.
Self-efficacy
—Temporary support to help a child master a
task.
Scaffolding
—Vygotsky’s term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
—Bronfenbrenner’s approach to under- standing processes and contexts of hu-man development that identifies five levels of environmental influence.
Bioecological Theory
—Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fit test to individual behavior.
Evolutionary Psychology
—Research that deals with objectively measurable data that can answer ‘’ how much?’’ ‘‘how many?’’ and that are amenable to statistical analysis
Quantitative Research
—System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry, which includes identifying a problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be tested by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, forming tentative conclusions, and disseminating findings.
Scientific Method
—Research that focuses on non-numerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs.
- how and why of the behavior
Qualitative Research
- a group to whom the findings may apply)
- The entire pool of individuals under study from which a sample is drawn and to which findings may apply.
Population
- a smaller group within the population.
- Group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study.
Sample
- each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen.
- Selection of a sample in such a way that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen.
Random selection
- The result of random selection.
- A sample of individuals chosen in such a way that every individual in the population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen.
Random sample
- The simplest form of self-report is a diary or log.
- Participants are asked about some aspect of their lives; questioning may be highly structured or more flexible; self-report may be verbal or visual.
Self-Reports
for the type of societies from which research samples are typically drawn.
WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic)
- researchers look at people in real-life settings.
- Research method in which behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention or manipulation.
Naturalistic observation
- researchers observe and record behavior in a controlled environment, such as a laboratory.
- Research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions.
Laboratory observation
