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Biology of Sex > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Asexual Reproduction?

A

Takes one organism to produce and pass on genetic material. 100% of genetic material is passed on, thus the offspring is a copy
- Animal example: Amoeba

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2
Q

What is Sexual Reproduction?

A

The union of egg and sperm. There needs to be a mating occurring and there is genetic variation (50%/50% per parent)

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3
Q

What is the Biological Paradigm?

A

The animal that leaves the most genes in the next generation, wins, immortality as in offspring

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4
Q

What is reproduction?

A

When animals (and plants) give rise to offspring which may consist of a portion of the parent by sexual or asexual reproduction

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5
Q

What is sex?

A

Reproduction marked by the union of gametes (male sperm, female egg).

However, reproduction can happen with union of gametes (sexual) or without union of gametes (asexual)

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6
Q

What are gonads? What are the male and female gonads?

A

Reproductive glands that produce “germ cells” which mature into “gametes”

Male gonads are tests (sperm are the gametes)

Female gonads are ovaries (eggs are the female gametes)

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7
Q

How do bacteria reproduce?

A

Through binary fission (asexual reproduction)

the bacterium grows large then the parent splits and becomes two equal parts

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8
Q

How can bacteria DNA be altered?

A

Conjugation…with “sex pillus” connector

Conjugation is NOT reproduction, bacteria aren’t replicated but altered

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9
Q

When was the first asexual reproduction?

A

3.8 billion years ago

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10
Q

When was the first sexual reproduction?

A

1.5 billion years ago

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11
Q

What species can produce sexually and asexually?

A

Green Algae

Due to environmental changes, “sex inducer gene” is turned on

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12
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

An organism’s outward appearance influenced by genes and the environment (the external)

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13
Q

What is a genotype?

A

An organism’s genetic make up (the internal)

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14
Q

How many chromosomes do humans have?

A

46 total, 23 pairs (including the 2 sex chromosome and 44 autosomes)

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15
Q

Does asexual reproduction use mitosis or meiosis?

A

Mitosis

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16
Q

Does sexual reproduction use mitosis or meiosis?

A

Meiosis

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17
Q

Why during the process of Meiosis is each sperm or egg different?

A

The process of “crossing over” where genetic material swapped and that causes genetic diversity

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18
Q

What can cause genetic variation?

A

I. Genetic recombination (crossing over)
II. Spontaneous Mutation, errors
III. Induced by external mutagen

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19
Q

What is genetic recombination (crossing over)?

A

Meiosis process where the child gets a trait (hair color for example) similar to one of their parents

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20
Q

What are spontaneous mutations?

A

Errors that occur during replication (extra chromosome - down syndrome)

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21
Q

What are external mutagens that can cause variation?

A

Radiation, smoking, pollution

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22
Q

What were Charles Darwin’s 5 points on Natural Selection?

A
  1. All individuals are born with slight variation
  2. Some variations are neutral, some deleterious, but some bestow an advantage
  3. Those animals with an advantage will breed more readily and pass on these advantageous variations
  4. Survival of the fittest
  5. Overtime, new species may arise due to variation
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23
Q

What are pros and cons of Asexual Reproduction?

A

Pro:
- fast and easy
- takes only 1 organism

Cons:
- no genetic variation

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24
Q

What are pros and cons of sexual Reproduction?

A

Pros:
- Offspring have genetic variation

Cons:
- not fast and easy
- needs a mate

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25
Q

What are genetics?

A

Genes (blueprint of inheritance)

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26
Q

What are genes?

A

A linear portion of DNA

A gene codes for a protein

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27
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

A long strand of DNA made up of many genes

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28
Q

What is Loci?

A

Known genes are found on a certain chromosome at a certain location or position

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29
Q

What is an allele?

A

An alternative form of a gene

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30
Q

What is Fertilization?

A

When specialized gametes (a haploid egg & haploid sperm) come together to form a (diploid) zygote

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31
Q

In humans, which is more expensive egg or sperm?

A

Egg!

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32
Q

What are polar bodies?

A

When eggs divide unevenly, and more cytoplasm is placed in a daughter cell. Smaller eggs are known as polar bodies

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33
Q

What are the steps of mammalian fertilization?

A
  1. Ovary releases egg
  2. Egg and sperm meet
  3. egg travels to fallopian tubes
  4. Implanted in uterus
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34
Q

How long after egg release, does the egg need to be fertilized? How long can sperm live in a woman’s reproductive tract?

A
  • 12-24 hours
  • 5 days
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35
Q

About how many eggs do human females hold?

A

1-2 million where with each egg loss, the quality of egg decreases

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36
Q

How much sperm do men reproduce?

A

360 trillion, as of recent times, the quality of male sperm has decreased

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37
Q

What caused the decline in quality of human eggs and sperm?

A

Mutation

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38
Q

True or false: Even when women go through menopause, men can still produce sperm that can cause pregnancy?

A

True!

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39
Q

True or false: In meiosis, more sperm is produced than eggs?

A

True!

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40
Q

True or false: In mammals, females typically produce more offspring than males

A

False, males typically produce more offspring

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41
Q

True of False: the female track can weed out inferior sperm?

A

True!

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42
Q

What is the “passive egg fallacy”?

A

Contradicts the idea that the sperm is the ‘key’ to the egg’s ‘lock’

truth: the egg is in control in choosing which sperm fertilizes the egg

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43
Q

What is external fertilization? What is a species that engages on external fertilization?

A

When gametes unite outside the female’s reproductive tract

fish! they drop their eggs outside, and a male will come over on top the eggs and release his sperm thus fertilizing the eggs

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44
Q

What are pros and cons for external fertilization?

A

pros:
- doesn’t have to carry eggs
- may or may not have parental care
- self sufficient
- can have high rates of dispersal

cons:
- many eggs aren’t fertilized
- many eggs are wasted as they are eaten
- dispersed to inappropriate habitats
- need to find water (if amphibians)
- doesn’t know father

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45
Q

What is internal fertilization?

A

Gametes unite within the body of the inseminated animal (typically in the females)

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46
Q

What insects mate in the air via internal fertilization?

A

Dragonflies, Lovebugs, Hoverflies

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47
Q

Is a female insect collecting a spermatophore considered internal or external fertilization?

A

Internal fertilization

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48
Q

Can males species get pregnant?

A

In the case of seahorses, Yes! the males carry the eggs once the female releases them into the male

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49
Q

What are the pros and cons of internal fertilization?

A

pros:
- Protected inside female (or male)
- Nutrition more constant
- can know relatedness (maternity & paternity)
- Can place eggs in safe setting

cons:
- highly dependent offspring
- females can be slowed down

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50
Q

What are some dangers of mating?

A
  • can be preoccupied with mating and get hunted (male praire dogs)
  • male-male contests (fights between males)
  • males can hurt/kill the females (male mallards often drown females)
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51
Q

How is sex determined in birds? Name the chromosome type and which sex determines the offspring sex

A

ZZ males, ZW females
females decide the sex

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52
Q

How is sex determined in most insect? Name the chromosome type and which sex determines the offspring sex

A

XY males, XX females
male decide the sex

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53
Q

How is sex determined in grasshoppers and crickets? Name the chromosome type and which sex determines the offspring sex

A

XO males, XX females
males decide the sex

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54
Q

How is sex determined in butterflies? Name the chromosome type and which sex determines the offspring sex

A

WW male, WZ female
female decide the sex

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55
Q

What are secondary sex characteristics? and name some

A

traits that appear during puberty
(breasts, facial hair, muscle mass)

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56
Q

What are primary sex characteristics?

A

gonads and any anatomical part of internal reproductive system

(penis&balls, vagina)

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57
Q

What are the male and female sex hormones?

A

Female: Estrogens
Male: Androgens

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58
Q

True of false: sex hormones are synthesized from cholesterol

A

True!

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59
Q

T or F: Sex hormones are excreted by endocrine glands

A

True! (through the testes, ovaries, and adrenal)

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60
Q

T or F: Sex hormones controls puberty & reproduction

A

True!

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61
Q

Where do females produce testosterone?

A

In the ovaries and adrenal gland

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62
Q

Where do males produce estrogen?

A

in the adrenal glad

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63
Q

What does estrogen regulate in females?

A

Regulates secondary sex characteristics:
pubic hair, breasts, menstrual cycle

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64
Q

What does progesterone do?

A

Regulates menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and growth of the embryo

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65
Q

T or F: Prolactin is a sex hormone

A

False! but high levels can decrease levels of certain sex hormones

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66
Q

What does prolactin do?

A

related to maternal care including mammalian milk

regulates the immune system and overall metabolism

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67
Q

What are some male secondary sex characteristics?

A

deepening of voice, muscles mass, growth spurts, increased energy

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68
Q

T or F: testosterone can improve muscle mass and stamina

A

True! it is produced endogenously by the body in the male testes (inside the body)

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69
Q

What is called when you have artificial testosterone?

A

Exogenous testosterone (made outside the body)

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70
Q

What are some negatives of artificial testosterone and other steriods?

A
  • hurt the kidney’s
  • hurts your liver
  • ligaments and joints degrade
  • lower sperm count
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71
Q

T or F: for endogenous testosterone, can heighten sex drive but does not correlate with sex drive

A

True! sex drive is correlated with external stimulus rather than testosterone

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72
Q

What is the “fragile male” concept?

Name the 3 sources

A

Developing males are more difficult than females

  1. more spontaneous abortion, hemorrhaging
  2. male brain at birth is heavier, more risks with oxygen loss at birth
  3. more congenital deformities (heart defects)
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73
Q

T or F: baby girls suffer more genetic disorders than males

A

False! baby boys are more prone to genetic disorders

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74
Q

What are some reasons for the sex ratios to shift?

A

smoking, pesticides

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75
Q

What is fitness in biology?

A

the extent to which an organism is adapted to, or is able to produce offspring in a particular environment

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76
Q

What is direct fitness?

A

Passing on your genes through your offspring

77
Q

What is indirect fitness?

A

passing on your genes though your relative’s offspring

78
Q

What is inclusive fitness?

A

the sum of indirect and direct, during a life time

79
Q

What is a mating system?

A

How many sexual partners does an animal have

80
Q

What is monogamy?

A

Male and female have one partner in a breeding season or throughout their life

81
Q

What are characteristics of a monogamous relationship?

A
  • care for offspring
  • provide anti-predator defense
  • guard female
82
Q

What are some monogamous animals?

A

-swans
- dik-dik

83
Q

What is polygyny?

A

One male mating with several females

84
Q

What is an example of an animal that partakes in polygyny?

A

Mountain gorillas

85
Q

What is resource defense in polygyny?

A

Males fight each other to defend a needed resource like land or food

86
Q

What is female defense in polygyny?

A

Males fighting to protect his group of females

87
Q

Explain Lekking

A

Lekking is when males come together in one area and once females come to the area, they put on a show for the female to select the best mate. Males do this when they find females to mate, some males are excluded

88
Q

What animals participate in lekking?

A
  • Black grouse
  • Topi
89
Q

What is polyandry?

A

Female will mate with two males, but each male mates with just one female

90
Q

What animal partakes in polyandry?

A

spotted sandpiper

91
Q

What is promiscuous mating?

A

male will mate with many females and a female will mate with many males

92
Q

What animal is able to change their mating pattern?

A

Saddleback Tamarins (monogamy & polyandry)

93
Q

What is the matting pattern for Prairie voles and Montane voles?

A

Prairie voles are monogamous, Montane moles are polygynous

94
Q

Why are Prairie voles monogamous?

A

the voles become connected to each other and become ‘sexually addicted’ through social imprinting

95
Q

Why are Montane voles polygynous?

A

They have few receptors that doesn’t get them addicted to sex

96
Q

What is a Hermaphrodite?

A

A nonhuman organism that has reproductive gonads of both sexes (ovaries and testes) and may possess the secondary sex characteristics of one or both sexes

97
Q

What animal is an hermaphrodite?

A

Earthworm (don’t self fertilize, but nematodes can)

98
Q

Where did hermaphrodites originate from?

A

probably evolved from single-sexed (male & female) ancestors
- reduced mobility
- produce higher fitness

99
Q

What are simultaneous hermaphrodites?

A

the organism has functioning male and female organs simultaneously
- they can choose which function to use

100
Q

What animal is a simultaneous hermaphrodite?

A

Hamlet fish
- switch roles during mating bouts
- prevents cheating

101
Q

What is Bateman’s principle?

A

Predicts that females will be limited by their egg production (& resources to make eggs), yet males will be limited only by their access to females or to their eggs

102
Q

What are serial hermaphrodites?

A

Go from one sex then it changes to the other at some part in their life

103
Q

What is it called when an animal is first female then male?

A

Protongynous

104
Q

In the example of Bluestreak Cleaner Wrasses, why do they become protogynous?

A

When the harem male dies, the largest female will start to act like a male within hours and produce sperm and breed in 10 days

105
Q

What are the two main reasons for sex?

A
  1. creates new genotypes
  2. Increases the resistance to parasites and/or pathogens
106
Q

What does syphilis affect?

A

affects brain, heart, eyes, and bones

107
Q

T or F: the US has the highest STD rates in the industrial world

A

True! the STDs are becoming resistant to the current antibiotics

108
Q

T or F: The Zika virus can persist in male semen for several months after onset symptoms

A

True!

109
Q

T or F: Ebola virus can persist in male semen for five years and can be passed onto a sexual partner

A

True!

110
Q

Why do nuns have more breast cancer?

A

Since nuns do not get pregnant, nuns estrogens levels are lowered

111
Q

Why don’t nuns have cervical cancer?

A

cervical cancer is caused by STD HPV and nuns don’t have sex

112
Q

T or F: all plants and animals that take part in sexual reproduction, can develop STDs?

A

True!

113
Q

What is HIV?

A

Human Immunodeficiency virus

a retrovirus is a virus that can lead to AIDS
(a retrovirus is a virus that inserts its DNA into a cell, and as a result that cell makes more viruses)

114
Q

What is parthenogenesis?

A

A type of asexual reproduction where offspring arise from an unfertilized egg

115
Q

What is the reason for organism to partake in parthenogenesis type of reproduction?

A
  • means to overcome low population numbers
  • means to get through difficult environmental condition
116
Q

T or F: Wild mammals can reproduce parthenogentically.

A

False! genomic imprinting prevents parthenogenesis (regulating gene expression)

117
Q

What animals partake in normal parthenogenesis?

(unfertilized egg develops into female)

A

Amazon Mollies (unfertilized egg develops into female)

118
Q

What is cyclic parthenogenesis?

A

an animal alternates between parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction

119
Q

What is exceptional parthenogensis?

A

Unfertilized eggs usually die, but sometime they do develop and hatch out

120
Q

What is facultative parthenogenesis?

A

eggs develop when they are fertilized (sexual reproduction) and when they are not fertilized

121
Q

Which organism is an example of cyclic parthenogenesis?

(sexual reproduction occurs late summer rest is parthenogenetic)

A

Aphids (sexual reproduction occurs late summer rest is parthenogenetic)

122
Q

which animal is an example of exceptional parthenogenesis?

A

Bonnethead Shark (shark pup was a female without any male contribution)

123
Q

What animal is an example of exceptional parthenogenesis?

A

Komodo Dragon

124
Q

What animal is an example of faculative parthenogenesis?

parthenogenesis is utilized even when males are available

A

Turkeys (eggs can develop when they are fertilized and when they are not)
- parthenogenesis is utilized even when males are available

125
Q

T or F: in the stick insect species, the females prefer to reproduce parthenogenetically

A

True!

126
Q

What is a clone?

A

A clone is an individual that has developed from a single somatic cell from a parent

127
Q

What is a mosaic?

A

from one ferilized egg, there arises two distinct populations of cells with different genotypes

occurs when different cells emerged from the same zygote

128
Q

What is inbreeding?

A

Breeding with close relatives which often result in a higher frequency of deleterious genes

129
Q

How do some animal species avoid inbreeding?

A
  • different “senses” recognize kin
  • not advantageous
130
Q

What is the Prepubertal Interaction Theory?

A

When children play together before puberty, they then lack sexual attraction between each other in their adult lives

131
Q

T or F: temperature can impact incubation and sex

A

True! (Australian Skink)

132
Q

What are the major selection pressures?

A

I. food
II. Predator Avoidance
III. Find Mates
IV. Disease

133
Q

What is sexual selection?

A

One genotype (either a male or a female) mates more frequently because it is deemed more desirable than another genotype

134
Q

T or F: Sexual selection can produce characteristics that are not vital for survival but assist in attracting a male

A

True! case of long tail feathers, bright colors

135
Q

What is OSR?

A

Operational sex ratio (ratio of breeding males & females)

136
Q

What is Intrasexual competition?

A

(within the same sex)
One sex competes with its rival and winner has access to all females
(big strong males win)

137
Q

What is Intersexual competition?

A

(between sexes)
Mate choice = female choice, males make themselves attractive to the opposite sex
(female picks the most attractive male)

138
Q

T or F: ornaments are a sign of quality and good health

A

True! the brighter they are, the healthier they are

139
Q

What is the “sexy son hypothesis”?

A

Females will get with attractive males anf their sons will also be attractive

140
Q

T or F: females are typically the limiting sex

A

True! egg is very expensive to produce, thus males will compete to have that expensive female egg

141
Q

What is an exception of Bateman’s principle?

A

Sperm is expensive, Male adder snakes lose body mass and needs to rest to produce more sperm

142
Q

What is the runaway selection hypothesis?

A

A trait may be slightly helpful for surivial, but if a female likes the trait they will mate with the male and have sons that have the trait, but eventually trait will become disadvantageous (long tail)

143
Q

What is the Handicap Principle and who coined the term?

A

Zahavi

a trait may be a burden and therefore it is costly to the bearer. Only a superior animal is able to carry the handicap

(ex: handicap with peacocks with longer tail vs inferior male with small tail)

144
Q

What is an example of the handicap principle?

A

Elks with massive antlers, peacocks with long tails (these are handicaps, but they are the superior males)

145
Q

What is the honest signaling theory?

A

Animals don’t usually fight to the death, in place is a system where animals signal their aggression, intent, and fighting abilities

146
Q

Why can’t animals cheat and claim to be the superiors?

A
  1. burdensome trait can’t be carried by a weak individual
  2. If called out to a challenge, could die since you don’t have the skills to defend yourself
  3. animals look holistically for another superior traits
147
Q

What is social signaling in humans?

A

displays of wealth, efforts to hide poverty

148
Q

What are the male tactics to mate with females?

A

I. sneaker males & pretending to be female
II. Giving gifts
III. unusual male tactics
IV. sperm competition
V. penis morphology

149
Q

What is the sneaker male strategy?

A

male will be percieved as female which gives them access to females and fertilize their eggs (common in fish, Bluegill sunfish)

150
Q

What is the testes size of the sneaker male compared to other males?

A

sneaker male bodies are smaller but the size of the testes are larger than other breeding males

151
Q

What is spermatophore?

A

a mass package that contains sperm that the females can accept and place into her oviduct

152
Q

What are nuptial gifts?

A

Includes spermatophores, and other gifts that do not contain sperm like dead insects, silken balloons, saliva

153
Q

What nuptial gift does the Empidid fly produce?

A

silken balloon

154
Q

What is an example of an unusual male tactic?

A

Australian redback spider, stands on head and launches himself into the jaws of female that eats him (his body is the gift)

inserts female with sperm

155
Q

How do sperm competitions work?

A

needs 2 or more males for the competition

  1. give more sperm than the other male
  2. have higher quality sperm than other
  3. the order of mating
  4. remove sperm from previous male
  5. kamikaze sperm (“A” blocks other sperm, “B” attacks and maim other sperm)
156
Q

Talk about how sperm can cooperate with each other in the reproductive track

A

Sperm and link up and push each other further up to the egg, then separate where its a one on one battle

157
Q

What are the female tactics?

A

I. Access to food (male can become “the food”)
II. Picking a good mate
III. Post copulatory
IV. and Unusual tactics

158
Q

What species is the female known to eat their male mate?

A

Black Widows, Praying Mantis

159
Q

How do male praying mantis’ mate?

A
  1. through regular copulation
  2. if his head is eaten, his body can still position itself over the mate and inseminate her
160
Q

What is a benefit of the female praying mantis eating the male?

A

the female gets additional nutritional benefit and can lay even more healthier eggs

161
Q

How do female Australian Painted Dragons choose a mate?

A

A female will preference to mate with both the yellow male and red male to maintain variation

162
Q

What is ovulation?

A

Occurs when a mature egg is released (an ovum) and is available for fertilization by the sperm

163
Q

What is the ovulation rate of a chicken?

A

everyday

164
Q

What is the ovulation rate of lemurs?

A

once a year (reason they may go extinxt)

165
Q

What is the ovulation rate of Meadow Voles?

A

4 times a year

166
Q

What is the ovulation rate of Yellow Baboons?

A

every month

167
Q

When do Cheetah’s ovulate?

A

When females heat the “stutter-bark” they get turned on and that initiates ovulation

168
Q

What are some ovulation signal carried by primates?

A

Bottom swelling from Baboons

169
Q

From female tactics, what is an example of female-female competition?

A

For gorillas, one female of the harem would direct all the male attention onto her so the other females leave the harem

170
Q

Explain the anovulatory cycle in female cycle?

A

Females mate with mates without ovulating in order to protect eventual offspring

171
Q

What is the “father at home” hypothesis?

A

Males will keep having sex with the female, as eventually she will be ovulating.

172
Q

T or F: Menstruation has an adaptive benefit

A

True!
- adaptive spiral artery
- menstrual blood lack clotting factors

173
Q

What is cuckoldry?

A

A male raises an offspring that he did not sire
- a female can also be tricked into raising an offspring that is not hers

174
Q

What animal did cuckoldry stem from?

A

Cuckoo Bird

175
Q

What is menopause?

A

a ceasing of ovulation and menstruation. marked lowering of the production of female hormones

176
Q

Why is it that the maternal grandmother would take over the grandchild than the paternal grandmother?

A

the maternal grandmother knows there is direct relatedness, but the paternal grandmother has doubts

177
Q

What is bacterial conjugation?

A

by which one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through direct contact (like build a bridge in order to transfer information)

178
Q

What species participates in external fertilization?

A

Frogs and Fish
- For frogs, the males will climb onto of the female, and once she releases her eggs the man drops his sperm on the eggs

179
Q

What animals engage in internal fertilization?

A

All mammals, sea turtles

180
Q

T or F: males and females are similar for the first 7 weeks

A

True!

181
Q

Explain all the possibilities of the how the position of gerbils in their sack impact level of testosterone.

A

2M gerbil male: very aggressive, more battle wins, more mating, doesn’t care for offspring

2F male: not aggressive, less mating, women aren’t attracted, cares for offspring

2M female: mature later, more aggressive, prone to fighting

0M or 1M: mature earlier, has more offspring

182
Q

What does Oxytocin do?

A

hormone affects sexually receptivity, Related to maternal nurturing behavior

183
Q

What does Vasopressin do?

A

In the male brain works to regulate memory formation and is used as a reward in mate bonding (memory of mating)

184
Q

What happens if the Vasopressin is knocked out?

A

animals can not recognize or remember each other.

185
Q

Name a sneaker male

A

Bluegill sunfish

186
Q

What type of serial hermaphrodite is male first then female

A

Protandrous

187
Q

What is the Red Queen Arms Race?

A

species must continually evolve new adaptations in response to evolutionary changes in other organisms to avoid extinction.

188
Q

What is a Barr Body?

A

inactivated X chromosome

189
Q

How does the “pill” work as a contraceptive?

A

The pill makes the body seem like it is pregnant so eggs aren’t released.

Biology of Sex (4 decks)

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