midterm Flashcards

Question

pidgin-creole

Answer 1

Pidgin languages are new languages based on two or more languages and these become the first languages of a new generation than they are called creoles.

Answer 2

People of certain social groups aiming for a more prestigious form of language than they would naturally use. This is called ‘hypercorrection’. The counterpart of hypercorrection is the phenomenon observed when some people use stigmatized forms of language this is known as ‘covert prestige’.

Answer 3

A ‘dialect levelling model’ of change has been used to account for data in a number of studies. Large-scale homogenization appears to be taking place in spoken British English: differences between accents are becoming less marked. A ‘gravity model’ of ‘diffusion’, which involves the spreading of variants from an identifiable local base into other geographical localities, also appears to be underway. Many of the spreading features in British English are thought to be moving northwards from a south-eastern epicentre. Forms associated with London English are now found in urban centres far from the capital.

Answer 4

(a) The linguistic variable e.g. This is any single feature of language which could be realized by different choices. Farm some pronounce the /r/ some not and if they do there are also variations (b) Phonological variation e.g. . Phonological variables also have the advantage that they are usually below the level of conscious awareness, so the recorded data can be relied on to be naturalistic. (strong or broad accent) (c) Grammatical variation e.g. A major feature of African–American vernacular English (AAVE) is the non-use of the verb ‘to be’ in some contexts: he a big man, you the teacher. This is known as ‘zero copula’, and is the grammatical form to use when the verb could be contracted in general American English or standard British English: he’s a big man, you’re the teacher. (d) Lexical variation e.g. Most local areas have specific lexical items that serve to identify their speakers: your nose is a neb in Yorkshire; a square is to Philadelphians what a block is to a New Yorker (e) Discoursal variation e.g. how politicians can be trained to exploit techniques for ‘keeping their turn’ or how politeness (and impoliteness) works have been generalized cross-culturally

Answer 5

English as a lingua franca – concerned with the particularities of international communication where speakers with different linguacultural backgrounds interact

Answer 6

Refers to the English language as it is variously used throughout the world

Answer 7

Is a group of dialects of the English language used in Europe.

Answer 8

English as an international language, English is used as a local means of intra-national communication in countries like the outer-circle and English has become the common global means of intra-national communication

Answer 9

In intranational communication, English functions as a second official language like in ex-colonial countries such as India or Pakistan, while in international communication it functions as a lingua franca among speakers who represent a wide variety of different languages and cultures.

Answer 10

Kachru’s circle model represents the functions that English fulfils in the world. The figure is made of three circles placed inside each other. The inner circle represent those countries which speak English as a native language (ENL), such as Britain, North America, and New Zeland. The middle one called the outer circle, this one stands for the countries which adopted English as a second language like Africa and Asia during the colonisation. Lastly, the expanded circle includes all of the countries that spoke the language as a foreign language.

Answer 11

a branch of language study which is concerned with what we do when we are going about the business of everyday life using language

Answer 12

suggests that such instances of discourse can be understood in terms of conventional actions speakers perform when engaging in acts of communication

Answer 13

this kind of behaviour makes sure that the conveyance of information is carried out in a manner which is acceptable to the addressees and renders the intrusion into their private space least harmful / in an interaction can be defined as the means of employed show awareness of another person’s face

Answer 14

when people make sense of language in various contexts they heavily rely on their knowledge of the world and of how conversations work

Answer 15

both explore how meaning is created but while semantics focuses on what words mean by themselves, pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning

Answer 16

A person's negative face is the need to be independent, to have freedom of action, and not to be imposed on by others. A person's positive face is the need to be accepted, even liked, by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that his or her wants are shared by others. In simple terms, the negative face is the need to be independent and the positive face is the need to be connected.

Answer 17

Grice represented a general guide which governs human interactions, to this principle there are four maxims. The maxim of quantity (the interlocutors make their contribution as informative as required), the maxim of quality (have to say the truth), the maxim of relation (what they say is relevant to the conversation), and the maxim of manner (to be brief and clear).

Answer 18

means the public self-image of a person, it refers to that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize

Answer 19

within their everyday social interactions, people generally behave as if their expectations concerning their public self-image will be respected

Answer 20

serve to soften a demand for bald on record forms

Answer 21

the tendency to use positive politeness forms, emphasizing closeness between speaker and hearer

Answer 22

the tendency to use negative politeness forms, emphasizing the hearer’s right to freedom

Answer 23

the tendency to use negative politeness forms, emphasizing the hearer’s right to freedom

Answer 24

If a speaker says something that represents a threat to another individual's expectations regarding self-image, it is described as a face threatening act. Alternatively, given the possibility that some action might be interpreted as a threat to another's face, the speaker can say something to lessen the possible threat. This is called a face saving act.

Answer 25

A person's negative face is the need to be independent, to have freedom of action, and not to be imposed on by others. A person's positive face is the need to be accepted, even liked, by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that his or her wants are shared by others. In simple terms, the negative face is the need to be independent and the positive face is the need to be connected.

Answer 26

A face saving act which is oriented to the person's negative face will tend to show deference, emphasize the importance of the other's time or concerns, and even include an apology for the imposition or interruption is called negative politeness. A face saving act which is concerned with the person's positive face will tend to show solidarity, emphasize that both speakers want the same thing, and that they have a common goal is called positive politeness.

Answer 27

These, and other similar types of statement, are not directly addressed to the other. The other can act as if the statements have not even been heard. They are technically described as being off record. In contrast to such off record statements, you can directly address the other as a means of expressing your needs. These direct address forms are technically described as being on record. The most direct approach is known as bald on record. The other person is directly asked for something.

Answer 28

All human beings inherit an universal set of priciples and parameters that control the shape human languages can take and which are what make human languages similar to each other.

Answer 29

It stands for language acquisition device which means how children leave behind their childish and incorrect language usage without the correction of the parents.

Answer 30

Linguistic competence means what language users know while linguistic performance is what a language user actually writes, says, and understands.

Answer 31

1. There is a difference between acquisition and learning. Acquisition is hypothesized to occur in a manner similar to L1 acquisition, that is, with the learner’s focus on communicating message meanings. 2. The monitor hypothesis suggests that, although spontaneous speech originates in the acquires system what has been learned may be used as a monitor to edit speech message. 3. Learners go through a series of predictable stages in their acquisition of language features, proposed the natural order hypothesis. 4. The comprehensible input hypothesis reflects his view that L2 learning, like L1 learning, occurs as a result of exposure to meaning and varied linguistic input. 5. The affective filter hypothesis suggests however that a condition for successful acquisition is that the learner be motivated to learn the L2 and thus receptive to the comprehensible input.

Answer 32

Was based on the view all learning, including language learning, occurs through a process of imitation, practice, reinforcement, and habit formation. (Environment is crucial)

Answer 33

Contrastive analysis hypothesis was proposed to account for the role of the L1 in L2 learning. It predicted that there were similarities existed between L1 and L2 structures.

Answer 34

It sees no reason to assume that language acquisition requires specific brain structures used uniquely for language acquisition, rather, they hypothesize that second language acquisition, like other learning, requires the learner’s attention and effort.

Answer 35

Language is first acquired through intentional learning.

Answer 36

Declarative knowledge with practice becomes this.

Answer 37

Occurs when a learner is accessing information that is new, rare, or complex.

Answer 38

Occurs quickly and with little or no attention and effort.

Answer 39

This may result in learners appearing to have made quite sudden changes in their interlanguage systems rather than gradually increasing the speed with which they use constructions that were already present.

Answer 40

The learner have to notice that the input makes the meaning.

Answer 41

According to these views, the brain creates network which connect words or phrases to other words ot phrases which occur at the same time. It suggested that these links are strengthened when learners are repeatedly exposed to linguistic stimuli in specific contexts.

Answer 42

Represents a way to relate underlying cognitive processes to stages in the L2 learner’s development.

Answer 43

L2 learners were observed to acquire certain syntactic and morphological features of the L2 in predictable stages.

Answer 44

Appeared to be learned by some but not all learners and in many cases did not appear to be learned in fixed sequences.

Answer 45

Learners can only be taught what they are psycholinguistically ready to learn.

Answer 46

Some of the L2 research in the framework is based on L1 research into children’s interaction with their caregivers and peers. L1 studies showed that children are often to a socialized variety of speech which is tailored to their linguistic and cognitive abilities.

Answer 47

There is an intimate relationship between culture and mind, and that all learning is first social than individual.

Answer 48

Characterize this developing linguistic system of the L2 learner.

Answer 49

Collection of both spoken and written natural texts.

Answer 50

uses corpus that are stored on computer by using a variety of computer-based tools, it can explore different questions about language use.

Answer 51

Refers to the use of codes in the texts to identify structural features of the text.

Answer 52

Many corpora provide information about the contents and creation of each text attached to the beginning of the text or stored in a separate database.

Answer 53

The most common kind of linguistic annotation, involves assigning a grammatical category tag to each word in the corpus.

Answer 54

That can be easily used to provide word frequency information.

Answer 55

A list of the words which occur in the corpus in frequency order.

Answer 56

Words that commonly occur with or in the vicinity of a target word.

Answer 57

Words that commonly occur with or in the vicinity of a target word are called collocate, and the resulting sequence or sets of words are called collocation.

Answer 58

These are patterns that occur with a greater than random frequency.