endterm

Question 1

syntactic thinking

Answer 1

which spawns the sequence of words which are typically think of when we talk about how language is initiated

Question 2

imagistic thinking

Answer 2

which creates a more holistic and visual mode of communication

Question 3

slips of the tongue/pen/keyboard

Answer 3

provide vivid insights into our understanding of how speech is formulated

Question 4

priming

Answer 4

guiding the direction of speech production and comprehension

Question 5

spoonerism

Answer 5

recognition of speech errors

Question 6

Freudian slips

Answer 6

Freud stated that the slip of the tongue is important because it reveals the unconscious mind

Question 7

coarticulation

Answer 7

in the production of any single sound, a lot of anatomical effort is devoted to performing several different movements simultaneously

Question 8

error

Answer 8

are mistakes committed by non-native speakers

Question 9

mistake

Answer 9

slips of the tongue and the pen

Question 10

feedback loop

Answer 10

production is a two-way transmission of messages where each previous stage of output was accurate is ensured

Question 11

What are the speech enhancing characteristics of the human larynx according to the chapter?

Answer 11

The human larynx is positioned deeper in the throat than in other animals, thanks to that humans can pronounce throaty consonants of Arabic or the initial consonants of the two words in the English salutation (Hi Harry!). Another benefit of the deep position of the larynx is the freedom of the tongue root which gives movement to it so it can produce more speech sounds.

Question 12

What are the stages of speech production in Levelt’s model? Please describe what happens at each stage briefly.

Answer 12

The stages of Levelt’s model are conceptualization, formulation, articulation, and self-monitoring. Conceptualization shows us while we speak our syntactic and imagistic thinking are working. In the formulation stage, the slip of the tongue and the unconscious pronunciation mistakes are discussed. Articulation is about the organs participating in speech and the importance of the larynx. And self-monitoring is basically the way we correct ourselves during speech after mistakes.

Question 13

aphasia

Answer 13

the loss of language due to brain damage

Question 14

neurolinguistics

Answer 14

offspring of psycholinguistics investigates how the human brain creates and processes speech and language

Question 15

corpus callosum

Answer 15

the largest sheath of association pathways connecting the two hemispheres

Question 16

motor cortex

Answer 16

the more forward strip of brain tissue, the one covered by your middle finger

Question 17

sensory cortex

Answer 17

the other strip, covered by your index finger

Question 18

equipotential brain

Answer 18

every part of the brain is equally responsible for every function

Question 19

neuroplasticity

Answer 19

when a young brain encounters traumatic injury, even to the extent of losing an entire cerebral hemisphere, because it is still maturing, and because the primary areas of cognitive and linguistic functioning have not undergone canalisation, a child does not suffer the extensive functional loss that an adult does

Question 20

canalization

Answer 20

neuronal networks

Question 21

split-brain operation

Answer 21

help to treat the specific and rare cases of severe epilepsy

Question 22

STM

Answer 22

Short term memory

Question 23

LTM

Answer 23

Long term memory

Question 24

What it the role of the left hemisphere as regards language? What about the right hemisphere?

Answer 24

Language is represented for most people in the left hemisphere, the area of the brain which is crucial for the production and comprehension of human language. The right hemisphere is

Question 25

How do the Broca’s and the Wernicke’s areas contribute to language according to the chapter?

Answer 25

Speech production resided largely in Borca’s area and comprehension of language was confined pretty much to Wernicke’s area.

Question 26

What kind of “evidence” is used in theories trying to account for stuttering? What are their alternative interpretations?

Answer 26

Stuttering is not random, it occurs most frequently on the initial word of the clause, the first syllable of the word, the initial consonant of a syllable, and on stop consonants. Theories of the cause are overprotecting parents, not appreciating parents, or the absence of unambiguous lateralization of speech to the left hemisphere.

Question 27

What conclusions can be drawn from language loss arising from inherited disorders?

Answer 27

Inherited disabilities do not attack language diversity, loss of linguistic capacity is a consequence of the more global loss of all higher cognitive functions.

Question 28

Correlation

Answer 28

Shows how likely it is that learners with high scores on the motivation questionnaire will also have high scores on the language test

Question 29

Intelligence

Answer 29

Reger to performance on certain kinds of tests

Question 30

Integrative motivation

Answer 30

language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment

Question 31

Instrumental motivation

Answer 31

Language learning for more immediate or practical goals

Question 32

Learning style

Answer 32

An individual’s natural habitual and preferred way of observing, processing, and retaining new information and skills

Question 33

Learner beliefs

Answer 33

Second language learners are not always aware of their individual cognitive or perceptual learning styles, but virtually all learners, particularly older learners have strong beliefs and opinions about how their instruction should be delivered

Question 34

Please list the abilities that are believed to contribute to language aptitude

Answer 34

Motivation, memory, IQ, language analysing skills

Question 35

Please list the most well-known perceptual learning styles

Answer 35

Visual learners are those who have to see the material to remember and understand it. Aural learners are those who have to hear it. The kinaesthetic learners are those who learn the easier with mimicking and role-playing.

Question 36

According to the authors, which are the most important personality characteristics that are believed to influence language learning?

Answer 36

Anxiety, introverted or extroverted personality traits, tension, learner’s willingness to communicate, self-esteem, empathy, dominance, responsiveness, and talkativeness have been studies but these showed that there is no significant connection between success in second language learning and personality characteristics.

Question 37

There is a critical period for second language acquisition because…

Answer 37

At younger and adolescent ages the learner can process, memorize and adapt to the target language and because of this their proficiency, pronunciation, grammar and so on will be higher and they will get there faster

Question 38

There is no critical period for second language acquisition because…

Answer 38

As the surveys showed adult learners could get to the level of a native speaker also, maybe with a smaller rate, bigger effort and more time but it is possible for them too.

Question 39

Learning strategies

Answer 39

Refers to how various learners approach learning in a significantly different manner.

Question 40

Language use strategies

Answer 40

Refers to strategies using the language that has been learned.

Question 41

Integrative orientation

Answer 41

This reflects a positive disposition toward the L2 group and the desire to interact and even become similar to valued members of the society.

Question 42

Instrumental orientation

Answer 42

Where language learning is primarily associated with the potential pragmatic gains of L2 proficiency, such as getting a better job.

Question 43

Integrative motive

Answer 43

Which is a complex construct made up of three main components: integrativeness, attitude toward the learning situation, and motivation.

Question 44

Linguistic self-confidence

Answer 44

Is a significant motivational subsystem in L2 acquisition.

Question 45

Please list the language use strategies described in the chapter and explain what they mean

Answer 45

1. Retrieval strategy – used to call up language material from storage
2. Rehearsal strategies – strategies for practising target language structures
3. Communication strategies – strategies used to convey a message that both meaningful and informative for the listener or reader
4. Cover strategies – strategies for creating an appearance of language ability so to not look unprepared, foolish

Question 46

Please describe the strategy classification used by Chamot and Oxford. What are the problems associated with these categories?

Answer 46

1. Cognitive strategies – they cover many of the processes or mental manipulations that learners go through in both learning and using the target language
2. Meta-cognitive strategies – those processes which learners consciously use in order to supervise or manage their language learning
3. Affective strategies – serve to regulate emotions, motivation, and attitudes
4. Social strategies – include the actions which learners choose to take in order to interact with other learners and with native speakers

The problem with these is in many cases they overlap, for example when someone practice for a job interview they apply on themselves cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies both at the same time.

Question 47

Which are the major skill areas that can serve as a basis of strategy classification?

Answer 47

1. Listening strategies
2. reading strategy use
3. speaking strategy use
4. writing strategy use
5. vocabulary strategies
6. grammar strategies
7. strategic use of translation

Question 48

What are the three phases of the motivation cycle according to Dörnyei? What are the specific motives that can be linked to each phase?

Answer 48

1. Motivation needs to be generated which is the choice motivation
2. Executive motivation – the generated motivation needs to be maintained and protected especially in classroom settings where the number of distractions are higher
3. Motivational retrospection – which concernes learners retrospective evaluation of how things went

Question 49

Please list the self-motivating strategies described in the chapter

Answer 49

1. Commitment control strategies
2. Metacognitive control strategies
3. Satiation control strategies
4. Emotion control strategies
5. Environmental control strategies

Question 50

test item

Answer 50

question

Question 51

fixed response format

Answer 51

a number of possible responses are represented from which the candidate can choose

Question 52

multiple choice format

Answer 52

a kind ok fixed response format question

Question 53

criterion

Answer 53

future real-life language use

Question 54

authenticity

Answer 54

inevitable gap between the test and the criterion

Question 55

validity

Answer 55

generalizability, if the language used fits the criterion or not

Question 56

observer’s paradox

Answer 56

the act of observation may change the behaviour being observed

Question 57

test validation

Answer 57

investigating the defensibility of the inferences about candidates that have been made on the basis of test performance

Question 58

paper-and-pencil tests – performance tests

Answer 58

paper-and-pencil tests take the form of the familiar examination question paper usually used for the assessment while in performance tests language skills are assessed in an act of communication

Question 59

direct testing – indirect testing

Answer 59

direct testing is like exams when the students prepare for it knowing there will be a test while indirect testing is the opposite

Question 60

achievement test – proficiency test

Answer 60

achievement tests are associated with the process of instruction like an end-of-course test, while a proficiency test looks for the future situation of language use without necessarily any reference to the previous process of teaching

Question 61

Which test types can be differentiated based on method and purpose?

Answer 61

Method: paper-and-pencil tests and performance test
Purpose: direct and indirect tests

Question 62

What is the goal of testing?

Answer 62

To gather evidence of general and specific language abilities from performance on tasks designed to provide a basis for prediction about an individual’s use of those abilities in real world contexts.

Question 63

reliability

Answer 63

which test can be trusted

Question 64

reliability coefficient

Answer 64

allow us to compare the reliability of different tests

Question 65

test-retest method

Answer 65

get a group of subjects to take a test twice

Question 66

alternate forms method

Answer 66

the use of two different forms of the same test

Question 67

true score

Answer 67

imagine someone who takes the same language test over and over again without their performance being affected by having already taken the test

Question 68

What are the two components of test reliability?

Answer 68

Score reliability and language ability?

Question 69

How can tests be made more reliable?

Answer 69

Take enough samples of behaviour, exclude items which do not discriminate well between weaker and stronger students, do not allow candidates too much freedom, write unambiguous items,, provide clear and explicit instructions, ensure that tests are well laid out and perfectly legible, make candidates familiar with format and testing techniques, provide uniform and non-distracting conditions of administration, use items that permit scoring which is as objective as possible, make comparison between candidates as direct as possible,provide a detailed scoring key, train scorers, agree acceptable responses and appropriate scores at outset of scoring, identify candidates by number not name, employ multiple independent scoring

Question 70

What is the relationship between validity and reliability? Is it possible to have a test which is valid but not reliable or one which is reliable but not valid?

Answer 70

A valid test must be reliable but a reliable might not be valid. This depends in part on what exactly we are trying to measure by setting the task. If we are interested in candidates ability to structure a composition then it would be hard to justify providing them with a structure in order to increase reliability.