endterm Flashcards
syntactic thinking
which spawns the sequence of words which are typically think of when we talk about how language is initiated
imagistic thinking
which creates a more holistic and visual mode of communication
slips of the tongue/pen/keyboard
provide vivid insights into our understanding of how speech is formulated
priming
guiding the direction of speech production and comprehension
spoonerism
recognition of speech errors
Freudian slips
Freud stated that the slip of the tongue is important because it reveals the unconscious mind
coarticulation
in the production of any single sound, a lot of anatomical effort is devoted to performing several different movements simultaneously
error
are mistakes committed by non-native speakers
mistake
slips of the tongue and the pen
feedback loop
production is a two-way transmission of messages where each previous stage of output was accurate is ensured
What are the speech enhancing characteristics of the human larynx according to the chapter?
The human larynx is positioned deeper in the throat than in other animals, thanks to that humans can pronounce throaty consonants of Arabic or the initial consonants of the two words in the English salutation (Hi Harry!). Another benefit of the deep position of the larynx is the freedom of the tongue root which gives movement to it so it can produce more speech sounds.
What are the stages of speech production in Levelt’s model? Please describe what happens at each stage briefly.
The stages of Levelt’s model are conceptualization, formulation, articulation, and self-monitoring. Conceptualization shows us while we speak our syntactic and imagistic thinking are working. In the formulation stage, the slip of the tongue and the unconscious pronunciation mistakes are discussed. Articulation is about the organs participating in speech and the importance of the larynx. And self-monitoring is basically the way we correct ourselves during speech after mistakes.
aphasia
the loss of language due to brain damage
neurolinguistics
offspring of psycholinguistics investigates how the human brain creates and processes speech and language
corpus callosum
the largest sheath of association pathways connecting the two hemispheres
motor cortex
the more forward strip of brain tissue, the one covered by your middle finger
sensory cortex
the other strip, covered by your index finger
equipotential brain
every part of the brain is equally responsible for every function
neuroplasticity
when a young brain encounters traumatic injury, even to the extent of losing an entire cerebral hemisphere, because it is still maturing, and because the primary areas of cognitive and linguistic functioning have not undergone canalisation, a child does not suffer the extensive functional loss that an adult does
canalization
neuronal networks
split-brain operation
help to treat the specific and rare cases of severe epilepsy
STM
Short term memory
LTM
Long term memory
What it the role of the left hemisphere as regards language? What about the right hemisphere?
Language is represented for most people in the left hemisphere, the area of the brain which is crucial for the production and comprehension of human language. The right hemisphere is
How do the Broca’s and the Wernicke’s areas contribute to language according to the chapter?
Speech production resided largely in Borca’s area and comprehension of language was confined pretty much to Wernicke’s area.
What kind of “evidence” is used in theories trying to account for stuttering? What are their alternative interpretations?
Stuttering is not random, it occurs most frequently on the initial word of the clause, the first syllable of the word, the initial consonant of a syllable, and on stop consonants. Theories of the cause are overprotecting parents, not appreciating parents, or the absence of unambiguous lateralization of speech to the left hemisphere.
What conclusions can be drawn from language loss arising from inherited disorders?
Inherited disabilities do not attack language diversity, loss of linguistic capacity is a consequence of the more global loss of all higher cognitive functions.
Correlation
Shows how likely it is that learners with high scores on the motivation questionnaire will also have high scores on the language test
Intelligence
Reger to performance on certain kinds of tests
Integrative motivation
language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment
Instrumental motivation
Language learning for more immediate or practical goals
Learning style
An individual’s natural habitual and preferred way of observing, processing, and retaining new information and skills
Learner beliefs
Second language learners are not always aware of their individual cognitive or perceptual learning styles, but virtually all learners, particularly older learners have strong beliefs and opinions about how their instruction should be delivered
Please list the abilities that are believed to contribute to language aptitude
Motivation, memory, IQ, language analysing skills
Please list the most well-known perceptual learning styles
Visual learners are those who have to see the material to remember and understand it. Aural learners are those who have to hear it. The kinaesthetic learners are those who learn the easier with mimicking and role-playing.
According to the authors, which are the most important personality characteristics that are believed to influence language learning?
Anxiety, introverted or extroverted personality traits, tension, learner’s willingness to communicate, self-esteem, empathy, dominance, responsiveness, and talkativeness have been studies but these showed that there is no significant connection between success in second language learning and personality characteristics.
There is a critical period for second language acquisition because…
At younger and adolescent ages the learner can process, memorize and adapt to the target language and because of this their proficiency, pronunciation, grammar and so on will be higher and they will get there faster
There is no critical period for second language acquisition because…
As the surveys showed adult learners could get to the level of a native speaker also, maybe with a smaller rate, bigger effort and more time but it is possible for them too.
Learning strategies
Refers to how various learners approach learning in a significantly different manner.
Language use strategies
Refers to strategies using the language that has been learned.
Integrative orientation
This reflects a positive disposition toward the L2 group and the desire to interact and even become similar to valued members of the society.
Instrumental orientation
Where language learning is primarily associated with the potential pragmatic gains of L2 proficiency, such as getting a better job.
Integrative motive
Which is a complex construct made up of three main components: integrativeness, attitude toward the learning situation, and motivation.
Linguistic self-confidence
Is a significant motivational subsystem in L2 acquisition.
Please list the language use strategies described in the chapter and explain what they mean
- Retrieval strategy – used to call up language material from storage
- Rehearsal strategies – strategies for practising target language structures
- Communication strategies – strategies used to convey a message that both meaningful and informative for the listener or reader
- Cover strategies – strategies for creating an appearance of language ability so to not look unprepared, foolish
Please describe the strategy classification used by Chamot and Oxford. What are the problems associated with these categories?
- Cognitive strategies – they cover many of the processes or mental manipulations that learners go through in both learning and using the target language
- Meta-cognitive strategies – those processes which learners consciously use in order to supervise or manage their language learning
- Affective strategies – serve to regulate emotions, motivation, and attitudes
- Social strategies – include the actions which learners choose to take in order to interact with other learners and with native speakers
The problem with these is in many cases they overlap, for example when someone practice for a job interview they apply on themselves cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies both at the same time.
Which are the major skill areas that can serve as a basis of strategy classification?
- Listening strategies
- reading strategy use
- speaking strategy use
- writing strategy use
- vocabulary strategies
- grammar strategies
- strategic use of translation
What are the three phases of the motivation cycle according to Dörnyei? What are the specific motives that can be linked to each phase?
- Motivation needs to be generated which is the choice motivation
- Executive motivation – the generated motivation needs to be maintained and protected especially in classroom settings where the number of distractions are higher
- Motivational retrospection – which concernes learners retrospective evaluation of how things went
Please list the self-motivating strategies described in the chapter
- Commitment control strategies
- Metacognitive control strategies
- Satiation control strategies
- Emotion control strategies
- Environmental control strategies
test item
question
fixed response format
a number of possible responses are represented from which the candidate can choose
multiple choice format
a kind ok fixed response format question
criterion
future real-life language use
authenticity
inevitable gap between the test and the criterion
validity
generalizability, if the language used fits the criterion or not
observer’s paradox
the act of observation may change the behaviour being observed
test validation
investigating the defensibility of the inferences about candidates that have been made on the basis of test performance
paper-and-pencil tests – performance tests
paper-and-pencil tests take the form of the familiar examination question paper usually used for the assessment while in performance tests language skills are assessed in an act of communication
direct testing – indirect testing
direct testing is like exams when the students prepare for it knowing there will be a test while indirect testing is the opposite
achievement test – proficiency test
achievement tests are associated with the process of instruction like an end-of-course test, while a proficiency test looks for the future situation of language use without necessarily any reference to the previous process of teaching
Which test types can be differentiated based on method and purpose?
Method: paper-and-pencil tests and performance test
Purpose: direct and indirect tests
What is the goal of testing?
To gather evidence of general and specific language abilities from performance on tasks designed to provide a basis for prediction about an individual’s use of those abilities in real world contexts.
reliability
which test can be trusted
reliability coefficient
allow us to compare the reliability of different tests
test-retest method
get a group of subjects to take a test twice
alternate forms method
the use of two different forms of the same test
true score
imagine someone who takes the same language test over and over again without their performance being affected by having already taken the test
What are the two components of test reliability?
Score reliability and language ability?
How can tests be made more reliable?
Take enough samples of behaviour, exclude items which do not discriminate well between weaker and stronger students, do not allow candidates too much freedom, write unambiguous items,, provide clear and explicit instructions, ensure that tests are well laid out and perfectly legible, make candidates familiar with format and testing techniques, provide uniform and non-distracting conditions of administration, use items that permit scoring which is as objective as possible, make comparison between candidates as direct as possible,provide a detailed scoring key, train scorers, agree acceptable responses and appropriate scores at outset of scoring, identify candidates by number not name, employ multiple independent scoring
What is the relationship between validity and reliability? Is it possible to have a test which is valid but not reliable or one which is reliable but not valid?
A valid test must be reliable but a reliable might not be valid. This depends in part on what exactly we are trying to measure by setting the task. If we are interested in candidates ability to structure a composition then it would be hard to justify providing them with a structure in order to increase reliability.
