midterm

Question 1

• The earliest taxonomies placed human
  beings in categories based on
  ________________.
  A) behavioural and psychological
  characteristics
  B) genetic makeup
  C) cultural customs and traditions
  D) superficial phenotypic characteristics

Answer 1

D) superficial phenotypic characteristics

Question 2

• A teacher uses a test of verbal fluency to
  determine who will lead a group of children. While
  the test may be accurate for children who speak
  English as a first language, it may not be accurate
  for children who speak English as an additional
  language. The application of this test is a/an
  ______________.
  A) item bias
  B) response style bias
  C) bias of the user of the test
  D) bias in the usage of the test

Answer 2

D) bias in the usage of the test

Question 3

Example Question Chapter 3
* Which of these is not one of Schwartz’s
top values endorsed by Canadians:
A) Universalism
B) Benevolence
C) Achievement
D) Security

Answer 3

D) Security

Question 4

• Someone says to you, “This is real
  interesting” in a sarcastic tone. This
  person is using Norman and Rummelhart’s
  addition to the Cooperative Principle
  maxim of _______________.
  A) relations with conversational partner
  B) rule violations
  C) manner
  D) relevance

Answer 4

B) rule violations

Question 5

• Acculturation is a process that is evident in
  ____________.
  A) only persons who are immigrants
  B) immigrants and host culture members
  C) only in interpersonal exchanges
  D) only persons in the host culture

Answer 5

B) immigrants and host culture members

Question 6

• If two cultures have a different concept of
  intelligence, this means that ______
  a) the concept is defined differently in each
  culture
  b) sample equivalency is a problem
  c) response bias is a potential problem
  d) there are issues surrounding ethical
  measurement of the concept

Answer 6

a) the concept is defined differently in each
culture

Question 7

In examining a concept in cultures A and B, the researcher
could use a “derived etic” if …
a) there is no communality between cultures A and B
and therefore, comparison is not possible.
b) there is an imposed etic
c) there is communality between cultures A and B and therefore, comparison is possible.
d) no attempt has been made to study the behaviour in both cultures.

Answer 7

b) there is an imposed etic

Question 8

One problem with naturalistic observation is
A. that the observer’s attitudes can have an
impact on the results of observation.
B. that measuring people’s behaviour in
their natural environments is not
possible.
C. the cultural differences in the way people
behave.
D. lack of reliable information

Answer 8

D. lack of reliable information

Question 9

Which of the following classifications best
describes a study examining whether the
concept of intelligence is different across
cultures?
A. Hypothesis testing studies
B. Level-oriented studies
C. Structure-oriented studies
D. Contextual studies

Answer 9

C. Structure-oriented studies

Question 10

Our experience with the environment shapes
our perception by creating perceptual
expectations of what we see. These
expectations are known as _______.
a) Sensory adaptation
b) Perceptual set
c) Visual sensory
d) Perception of colour

Answer 10

b) Perceptual set

Question 11

The monist view of consciousness believes in the
_______ of the body and soul. The dualist view
believes in ________ of body and soul.
a) independent existence, inseparability
b) mystical aspect, biological aspect
c) mystical aspect, social aspect
d) inseparability, independent existence

Answer 11

d) inseparability, independent existence

Question 12

Leo fortunes work: dobuans

Answer 12

Human nature
The idea of one “human nature” is misleading
The Dobuans human nature

The dobuans
Anthropological studies by Rio Fortune (1932)
Married to Margaret Mead
Believe in magical thinking, everything associated with magic
Environment influences culture

Dobuans environment
Volcanic island close to New Guinea
They farmed yam but had poor and difficult harvest
Went hungry most of the time because of poor farming environment
Believed yam roots would travel underground at night to neighboring tribe, developed practice to make yam stay
Developed magical practice to bring yam from neighboring farm
Blamed bad harvest on magic
Treated any death as homicide by magic

Dobuans culture
Lacked power to overcome farming problem
Developed magical thinking and complex rituals

Question 13

Different definitions of culture

Answer 13

Culture is used to describe and explain broad range of activities, events, and structures
There is much confusion and ambiguity about its definition

Debates in the last century
Anthropologists discuss culture as a way of encapsulating their understandings of the relatively small and relatively isolated groups of people
No agreement on the conceptual definition of culture

Definition 1
“Culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”- Tylor 1871
Definition 2
“Culture is whatever a person has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to the members of a society”- Goodenough 1957
Definition 3
“Culture is the man-made part of the environment”- Herskovits 1955
Definition 4
“Culture is learned ways of coping with experience”- Gregory 1983
Definition 5
“Culture is a relatively organized system of relatively shared meanings”- Rohner 1984- after Geertz 1974
Definition 6
“Culture is the collective programming of the mind that distinguished the members of one group or category of people from another”- Hofstede 2001
Definition 7
“Values and normative systems are the core aspects of societal culture. Culture also includes beliefs and practices”- Schwartz 2014

Question 14

Definition of cross-cultural psychology;

Answer 14

about comparison between atleast 2 cultures
Cultural psychology
Cultural psychology seeks to discover meaningful links between a culture and the psychology of individuals living in the culture

Cross cultural psychology
Cross cultural psychology focuses on comparing specific behaviour, values, and beliefs across cultures
It examines psychological diversity and the reasons for such diversity
It studies cross-cultural interactions
It establishes psychological universals

Question 15

Hofstede’s dimensions

Answer 15

The Hofstede Project
It is one of the most influential work in the development of research in cross-cultural psychology
Geert Hofstede, a dutch social psychologist, collected data of IBM employees worldwide in 1960s and 1970s
He reported the results of his analyses of 72,215 respondents from 40 nations in his classic study entitled “cultures consequences” 1980

Dimensions of culture
Hofstede (1980, 1991, 2001)
IBM staff survey
N = 117,000 in 69 countries
Partly matched samples in some nations
Reduced to 5 dimensions of culture related values
Factor analysis = 4(5) dimensions of culture related values:
1. Power distance
2. Uncertainty avoidance
3. Individualism/collectivistic
4. Masculinity/femininity
5. Long term orientation

Question 16

Power distance (PD)
High vs low countries

Answer 16

Power distance (PD)
It is the extent to which the members of the society accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally (hofstede 2001)
High Power Distance: malaysia, slovakia, guatemala, panama, philippines
Low power distance: austria, israel, denmark, new zealand, and ireland
Canada and US are mid/low power distance
National differences in PD
Collectivist positively associated with high power difference and warmer climates
Low power distance positively associated with cold climates and individualistic

Exploring PD, china example
Chinas reaction to 2010 nobel peace prize winner
Democracy activist Liu Xiaobo who was imprisoned in china was awarded nobel peace prize, was not allowed to go and receive
China reacted aggressively
Said nobel prize committee was interfering with internal affairs and they did not allow people to watch (tv went black)
Asked countries to not send diplomats to ceremony
Chinese authority felt threatened by indication of power sharing
People from high power distance cultures are comfortables with status differential and hierarchical relationships

Question 17

Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)

Answer 17

The degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity
High uncertainty avoidance: greece, portugal, guatemala, uruguay, malta
Low uncertainty avoidance: singapore, jamaica, denmark, sweden, and hong kong
National differences in UA
Canada and US fall more under low uncertainty avoidance

Question 18

Individualism and collectivism (IDV)

Answer 18

It refers to the relative importance of individual versus group as an important social unit
High individualistic: the US, the UK, the Netherlands, Canada and Hungary
Low individualistic: Guatemala, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, and Colombia
National differences in IDV
Exploring IDV, example old chinese practice
A chinese concept of t’ung-yang-his
Means “daughter-in-law raised from childhood” (wolf 1968)
Based on the great concern for harmony within the chinese family
This practice ensures that a sons loyalty to his mother is not transferred to his wife

Question 19

Masculinity vs femininity (MAS)

Answer 19

It differentiates nations that value assertiveness from those that value nurturance
High masculinity: slovakia, japan, hungary, austria, venezuela
Low masculinity: sweden, norway, netherlands, denmark, costa rica, finland
Canada and US fall under masculine

Question 20

Rival explanations cross cultural

Answer 20

Refers to alternative explanations for the observed cultural differences. These differences may not reflect real psychological differences but rather are based on some plausible ecplanations that account for observable differences
Ex: intelligence across cultures
1. Different definitions
To avoid rival hypothesis, we need to ensure that the meaning of constructs are the same in each culture
Similarity-different paradox
Categorization done by diff logics, ex hindu vs italian, canadian, cuban
Ex, sorting as a measure of intelligence, animals vs no animals, portrait vs landscape, relationship and association
2. Misunderstanding the instruction
We should employ formats and tasks that are familiar in both cultures
The extent to which participants are familiar with research or are “testwise” has a significant impact on their performance, ex familiarity with surveys
Confusion about answering abstract questions
3. Meaning of the test situation
We need to ensure that the meaning of the test situation is equivalent
4. Response set bias
We need to identify whether or not participants from one culture use extreme vs. moderate responses ex, extreme responses are rare for canadians but latin americans tend to switch between two extreme response options
5. Sample equivalence
We need to ensure that differences are not due to socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the participants in different cultures, ex normalcy of uni for canadians vs italians

Question 21

General points in conducting cross-cultural research

Answer 21

1. Generate methods (e.g., test items) in all the cultures that are to be compared
2. Use more than one method
3. Use local scientists

Question 22

Emics and etics

Answer 22

Emic concepts are culture specific. They are studied within the system in one culture and their structure is discovered within the system
Etic concepts are universal. They are studied outside the system in more than one culture and their structure is theoretical
Geisha is an emic concept unless aspects are compared, ex jesters

Question 23

Steps in operationalizing emics and ethics

Question 24

imposed etics

Question 25

Structure vs level oriented

Answer 25

METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
3. The distinction between structure-oriented and level-oriented studies.
*In structure-oriented studies the focus is on the meaning of a variable and relationships among variables.
*E.g., cross-cultural study of depression
•Level-oriented studies examine the size of cross-cultural differences.
•E.g., comparing Americans and Chilean school children in test anxiety.

Question 26

METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
contextual factors

Answer 26

METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
1.The inclusion of contextual factors including demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the participants or their culture.
E.g., comparing Canadians and Vietnamese on self-esteem.

Question 27

METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
*Methodological classification of cross-cultural research consists of three dimensions (van de Vijver, 2002).

Answer 27

METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
1.The inclusion of contextual factors including demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the participants or their culture.
E.g., comparing Canadians and Vietnamese on self-esteem.

2. The distinction between exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies.
   *In exploratory studies no prior ideas are formulated about cultural differences and similarities.
   *Exploratory studies are helpful in initial stages of research.
   *E.g., cross-cultural study of visual illusion (River, 1901)

2.The distinction between exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies.
*In hypothesis-testing studies theories or models about the relationship between psychological and cultural phenomena are specified at beforehand and tested for accuracy.
*E.g., examining generalizability of a Western model of personality, The Five-Factor Model of personality, in a non-Western society.

METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
3. The distinction between structure-oriented and level-oriented studies.
*In structure-oriented studies the focus is on the meaning of a variable and relationships among variables.
*E.g., cross-cultural study of depression

METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
3. The distinction between structure-oriented and level-oriented studies.
*Level-oriented studies examine the size of cross-cultural differences.
*E.g., comparing Americans and Chilean school children in test anxiety.

Question 28

exploratory vs. hypothesis testing studies

Answer 28

2.The distinction between exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies.
*In hypothesis-testing studies theories or models about the relationship between psychological and cultural phenomena are specified at beforehand and tested for accuracy.
*E.g., examining generalizability of a Western model of personality, The Five-Factor Model of personality, in a non-Western society.

2. The distinction between exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies.
   *In exploratory studies no prior ideas are formulated about cultural differences and similarities.
   *Exploratory studies are helpful in initial stages of research.
   *E.g., cross-cultural study of visual illusion (River, 1901)
   THE ISLANDS IN TORRES STRAITS

MÜLLER-LYER ILLUSION

Question 29

Cultural similarities and differences in parent-child interaction
Parental warmth

Answer 29

Socio-emotional development
The family and peers are two of the major social contexts of socio-emotional development for adolescents (chen 1998)
Parental warmth has universal existence but the level of parental warmth is not the same across cultures
Lower expression of warmth in industrialized societies than traditional societies
Lack of parental warmth has universal association with negative psychosocial outcomes
Adolescents in different cultures spend different amounts of time with their peers

Question 30

Kagitcibasi’s three models of family; definitions and how they are diff

Answer 30

Three models of family-first
The family model of interdependence
This is the case especially in societies with low levels of affluence, particularly with rural agrarian people or low income groups in urban or semi urban areas
It develops in socio-economic contexts where there is an economic utilitarian value is associated with one’s children (e.g., old age security benefits for parents)
This is also the context where fertility is the highest and in context of poverty where child mortality is high
This model is obedience oriented; children are expected to obey what parents want
Intergenerational interdependence is manifested through the family life cycle

Three models of family- second
The family model of independence
It develops affluent contexts where there is an economic cost associated with one’s children
There are psychological values for having children
This is also the context where child fertility and mortality is low
This model is self-reliance and independence oriented
More permissiveness than obedience

Three family models- third
The family model of psychological interdependence
It reflects urbanization and socio-economic development around the world
It reflects psychological (emotional) interdependencies
Child rearing involves control rather than permissiveness and autonomy rather than obedience is valued
The autonomy of the growing child becomes adaptive to urban lifestyles and is no longer a threat to family livelihood, given decreased material interdependencies

Question 31

Adolescence

Answer 31

A. the universality of adolescence as a distinct life-period
In almost all societies there is a notion of adolescence (schlegel 1991)
In most of the societies, the beginning of adolescence is marked by initiation ceremonies, or rites of passage, that are major public events
Most non-industrialized societies around the world hold rites of passage ceremonies
Themes of initiation ceremonies are typically consistent with the eventual adult responsibilities in the various societies
Some rituals tend to be painful

B. the universality of adolescence as a period of “storm and stress” (hall 1996)
The beginning of adolescence involves major physical transitions
In industrialized societies there is a disjunction between biology and society has the potential to create a difficult transitional period for adolescents (chen, 2002)
In agrarian societies children start early to assume responsibilities
Most adolescents live a life with few serious personal or social problems, but for a minority of adolescents, adolescence still represents the most troubling years. That is the case in industrialized and non-indsustrialized nations

Role of culture
Culture has influence on three areas of adolescent development
Physical development
Cognitive development
Socio-emotional development

Physical development
There is cross-cultural variations in the onset of puberty in girls
The onset of menstruation in girls has been declining in the past 140 years (chen, 2002) every decade girls have their puberty 4 months earlier on average
Nutrition is a major contributor to this variation

Cognitive development
Piaget stage theory of cognitive development
The qualitative aspects of the theory (the sequence of the stages) appear to be valid across cultures (Dasen, 1977). However, quantitative aspects (the timing of progression throught the stages) appears to vary greatly across cultures

Intelligence
Cross-cultural differences have also been found in adolescent school achievement
Adolescents from asian countries such as Japan, Korea, and China perform at a higher level on academic work than their counterparts in other parts of the world
Factors that account for East Asians superior school achievement are the cultural value of education, cultural beliefs in the positive outcomes of hard work (rather than ability), high parental expectations, dynamic classroom instruction, and more time devoted to academic work in and outside of school (Stevenson, 1993)

Question 32

rites of passage (more likely to happen in non-industrialized societies)

Answer 32

In most of the societies, the beginning of adolescence is marked by initiation ceremonies, or rites of passage, that are major public events
Most non-industrialized societies around the world hold rites of passage ceremonies
Themes of initiation ceremonies are typically consistent with the eventual adult responsibilities in the various societies
Some rituals tend to be painful
Gential operations, female genital circumsision
Extensive tattooing, ex tribes in indonesia
Lip plate, suri women in ethiopia, done a few years before girl is married off, the bigger the lip plate the more cattle given when married
Neck rings, neck stretching of paduang tribe of myanmar, the practice of wearing coil of brass rings around the neck
Extensive tattooing in mentawai tribe in indonesia
Lips and breast augmentation
Butt augmentation

Question 33

diff views on old age

Question 34

Semantic domains

Answer 34

A semantic domain is a range of potential meanings of a word
In language, a basic category of meaning that becomes elaborated into many words that denote slight differences within the category is called a semantic domain
In English, the 3000 words for colours are the semantic domain of the nine basic colours
Cultural differences in the richness of semantic domains help us discover what the people of each culture deem to be important in their daily lives

Hanunoo people
Cultural demands are the driving force behind the linguistic richness of certain semantic domains
Conklin (1955) studied the Hanunoo people of Midori Island in the Philippines and found their colour classification contains only white, black, red, and green (day, night, earth, and forest)

Many words for ice and snow
Elaborate semantic domains develop in any area of life that is culturally important to a society
The Eskimo have many different terms that belong to the semantic domain of ice
The Eskimo of Alaska has more than 160 names for kinds of ice. Keeping track of the many differences in ice was important to their hunting life in the Arctic
In Eskimo languages, multiple affixes are added to the two words for snow and create many words for snow

Question 35

conversational constraints

Answer 35

Kim (1994) developed a theory of conversational constraints
It states that speakers within collectivistic cultures would constrain themselves not to hurt the hearer’s feelings and not to impose themselves on others (ingroup). Within individualist nations on the otherhand, speakers constraint themselves by favouring clarity of expression
Study by Kim et al
Compare Japan and Korea with america conversation-wise
Found that Americans focus on clarity and if the other person understands
Koreans and japanese care more about not offending the other person

Question 36

Low /high context cultures

Answer 36

Hall (1966) proposed that in low-context cultures, communication is treated as a relatively separate event without much reference to the particular interpersonal context within which it occurs. In contrast, in high-context cultures communications are treated as integrally linked to the context of relationships within which they occur.
In Russia it can be offensive to explain things clearly as it assumes the reader is dumb

Question 37

non-verbal communication

Answer 37

Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication (i.e., body language) is more likely than verbal communication to be misunderstood across-culturally
Proximity and self-construal
Sussman and Rosefield (1982) found that previously unacquainted Venezuelan negotiators sat closer than US negotiators who in turn sat closer than the Japanese negotiators
Independent self-construal predicts greater spatial distance during seated conversations among Europeans (holland, 2004)
Gesture
There is substantially more gesturing in some nations than others
Hand gestures
Low gesture rates are expected to be associated with greater formality and high power distance cultures
Smile
Thailand is often referred to as the land of the smiles
Thais really do smile, or yim, a lot
There are 13 different Thai smiles
Functions of smile
Instead of showing an emotion like anger or anxiety, Thais tend to simply smile
Smile, or Yim, serves as saving face
Silence
Silence can be thought of as an extreme example of high-context communication
Hasegawa and Gudykunst (1998) compared American and Japanese attitudes toward silence
Distinction between communicating with close friends vs. strangers
Two dimensions of silence: using silence strategically vs. viewing silence negatively
Hasegawa findings
Japanese reported being silent more frequently than Americans
Japanese reactions to silence varied depending on whether they were with friends but Americans’ reactions did not vary
Americans reported more strategic use of silence than did the Japanese

Question 38

intergroup relations
Culture and status, privilege

Answer 38

Culture and status
Three factors effects the relationship between culture and status
1. The social status of every human being in every society can either be achieved or ascribed
2. By becoming a member of different groups, people may accept more than one social status
3. Even in the most advanced democracies, there is discrimination based on gender, age, ethnicity, and/or religion
Reflecting on privileges

Question 39

Patterns of migration

Answer 39

Majority come from developing to developed
move to neighbouring or same region
Where do immigrants come from?
80% of the world’s migrants come from developing regions
The top three regions of origin are developing Latin America (18%), developing Eastern Europe and Central Asia (16%), and the Middle East and North Africa (14%)

Where do immigrants go?
48% of the world’s migrants have moved from developing to developed countries
32% of the world’s migrants have moved from developing to developing countries
17% of the world’s migrants have moved from developed to developed countries
3% of the world’s migrants have moved from developed to developing countries

Question 40

Benefits and discourse about migration

Answer 40

Benefits of migrants
1. Economical growth; fill in gaps in labour market; immigrants create jobs; pay taxes; add diversity to the economy
Net fiscal effects of immigration (the taxes migrants pay minus the benefits and government services they receive), tend to be quite small and positive for most OECD countries
2. Population growth; fertility in the developed regions, fell below the replacement level of 2.1 births per woman shortly before 1980, and stands currently at 1.7 births per woman
Migration is the only driver of population growth in the developed regions starting in 2020

Question 41

Gender empowerment measure

Answer 41

GENDER EMPOWERMENT
MEASURES
*Gender Empowerment Measures (GEM) consists of:
1. Women’s share of seats in parliament
2.Women’s share of administrative/managerial and professional/technical jobs
3. Women’s earning power

Question 42

Global gender gap; literacy, countries high and low

Answer 42

INDICES OF EQUALITY (GLOBAL GENDER GAP)
*Literacy
It is desirable to have an equal number of men and women who are literate.
*Management positions
Worldwide, the percentage of women in management positions is far less than 50%.
*Earnings
Worldwide, on average women earn less than what men earn for identical jobs.

GENDER GAP RANKING
*According to the Global Gender Gap report (World Economic Forum, 2023), five countries which scored highest on gender gap were:
Afghanistan, Chad, Algeria, Iran, Pakistan
*Five countries which scored lowest on gender gap were:
*Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden, & New Zealand
Example of gender inequality; japan, 125

Question 43

Polyandry

Answer 43

Polyandry
Fewer than 0.5% of human societies have practiced polyandry
Women with multiple male partners
Throughout tibet and the neighbouring himalayan areas of india, nepal, and bhutan, polyandry has been common for generations
Fraternal polyandry; brothers of one family all marry the same women
Polyandry is a way of minimizing population growth and coping with scarce resources

Question 44

Polygamy
Wodaabe tribe

Answer 44

Live in southwestern Niger (sub-sahara, west africa) through northern nigeria and northeastern cameroon
Wodaabe people consider themselves the most beautiful people on earth
Practice polygamy
Gender relation is reversed
Some gender roles are reversed amongst this ethnic group.
Beauty contest for Wodaabe Men

Question 45

Auditory and visual perception;

Answer 45

Perceptions
Perception refers to the process of organizing various sensations into meaningful patterns
Auditory perception; the first cords of the song able to identify song
Visual perception; flag of france vs flag of netherlands

Perception of depth
Perception of depth refers to the organization of sensations in three dimensions, even though the image on the eye’s retina is two dimensional
Devil’s tuning fork example; drawing by memory

Question 46

Cognition

Answer 46

Includes;
Sensation
Perception
States of consciousness

Question 47

Sensation
Absolute threshold;
Sensory adaptation;

Answer 47

Sensation refers to the process of stimulation of receptor cells and transmission of information to brain centres
Absolute threshold; the minimum amount of physical energy needed to perceive sensation
Sensory adaptation; stimuli stays the same and sensory gets habituated and does not perceive it

Question 48

Perception of colour

Answer 48

Perception of colour
The three universal dimensions of colour are: hue, brightness and saturation
According to language related theories of colour perception, in every language, there are words that are linked to various units of the visible spectrum
There are languages that lack certain words for particular colours

39 words for green
The zulus have 39 one word concepts for green
Wet green, dry green, shining green, river green etc

Colour preference
There are universal trends in people’s feelings about colour
Red; anger, love, danger, blood
Red was perceived as being salient and active, black and grey is bad; white, blue, and green as good; yellow, white, and grey were as passive

Colour related idioms
In english “feeling blue”; sadness
In portuguese “everything is blue”; everything is going well
In german, a man who is “blue”; someone intoxicated
In arabic having a “blue day”; having a bad day
In russian, a “blue” man is; a gay man
In at least a dozen languages, blue blood; aristoctacy/royalty

Question 49

Perception of time

Answer 49

Hall suggested that cultures differ in their time perspective and orientation
Diaz-guerrero studied perception of time amongst mexicans and americans
Participants had to estimate when a minute had elapsed
Mexicans on average reported it had elapsed after 1.5 mins vs americans who reported after 0.8 minutes
Developed nations more concerned with time, less developed less concerned
Not unheard of trains to be few hours late in indonesia, saying “time is rubber” can be stretched

Dealing with time
One way to get an idea of how people deal with time, is to ask whether they show different behaviours to different people in terms of time

Time as commodity
Time in the european and north american cultures is treated as a commodity. “Time is money!”
Hamermesh conducted a cross cultural analysis of time
Participants were affluent people in the US, germany, australia, canada, and south korea
It was found that people express dissatisfaction about the lack of time they experience as their incomes rise

Question 50

Consciousness

Answer 50

Refers to the subjective awareness of one’s own sensations, perceptions, and other mental events

The idea of individual consciousness as dependent on socialization experiences and other cultural factors was developed throughout the 20th century
People live within a behavioural environmen, a mental representation of time, space, and the interpersonal world
Cultural beliefs and practices shape the individuals behavioural environment

Question 51

Altered state of consciousness

Answer 51

Altered states of consciousness refers to mystic, perceptual, and sensory experiences, such as meditation, hypnosis, trance, intoxication, and possession
Trance is a sleeplike state characterized with reduced sensitivity to stimuli, loss or alteration of knowledge, and automatic motor activity
Visionary ex hallucination vs. possession trance ex occupied by a spirit
Visionary more common amongst men, possession more common amongst women
Enduring pain in the altered state
Several religious groups consider trance as a part of their regular religous experience
Inducing trance experience
Evoking trance states and similar experiences in laboratory settings
Stimulating temporal lobes with a weak magnetic field
Participants reported feelings of eternal presence, serenity and wisdom
Trance is associated with the release of the brains serotonin and opiates in the body, which induces a temporary state of elation, euphoria, and excitement

Question 52

Two fundamental views on consciousness;

Answer 52

The dualists believe in independent existence of body and soul
The monists believe in the inseperability of the body and soul

Question 53

Chapter 1: cross-cultural psych
Cross cultural psych

Answer 53

Cross-cultural psychology is essentially psychology but expanded globally, beyond national borders. This field is interested in cultural comparisons and searching for the universality of psychological processes, or what is similar or different across cultures. However, as you might guess, there is no one accepted definition of cross-cultural psychology (remember that there is no one definition of culture that everyone agrees with, either).
Yet, the following definition is frequently cited: “Cross-cultural psychology is the study of similarities and differences in individual psychological functioning in various cultural and ethnocultural groups”. Accordingly, this definition states that cross-cultural research in psychology involves comparative investigating of psychological principles in other cultures and/or with people from different ethnic groups.

Question 54

Chapter 1: cross-cultural psych
Cultural psych

Answer 54

Cultural psychology is the closest field to cross-cultural psychology and is concerned with human psychological processes within a cultural context. Cole (1996) describes several main characteristics of cultural psychology and states that cultural psychology emphasizes the importance of historical and everyday life events in understanding individual behaviour. Within this perspective, culture and psychological process are not independent of each other; rather, they are deeply connected and cannot be studied in isolation. In other words, culture is not something that is out there and is the cause of psychological process. Overall, cultural psychologists strive to develop a deep understanding of the behaviours of human beings in the unique cultural context that they are grounded
Although both cultural psychology and cross-cultural psychology focus on the relevance of culture in understanding human behaviour, the two are different in their approach to culture. Cross-cultural psychology examines similarities and differences of individual behaviours across cultures and, therefore, is comparative in nature. The aim of cross-cultural psychology is to identify universal psychological characteristics that can be found in a large number of populations while highlighting cultural factors that impact psychological development and expression of behaviours. However, discovering universal psychological characteristics is not a goal of cultural psychology. Cultural psychology tends to use qualitative methods to capture the complexity of psychological phenomena (e.g., self-concept, memory, intimacy, emotional expression) that are embedded in the cultural context. Qualitative methods allow for developing a deeper and a more comprehensive understanding of psychological concepts rooted in their specific culture. However, cross-cultural psychology tends to use quantitative methodology in order to make general statements about how cultural factors relate to psychological factors

Question 55

Chapter 1: cross-cultural psych
Multicultural psych

Answer 55

Those who study multicultural psychology tend to conduct research on different ethnic groups or on people with different cultural backgrounds who live in a pluralistic nation (Lonner et al., 2019). This includes the study of the perception of discrimination, prejudice, and aggressive behaviour of different groups within the border of a nation. If we put all that together, we can define multicultural psychology as the systematic study of all aspects of human behaviour that occurs in settings where people of different backgrounds interact. Multicultural psychologists are concerned with “the psychological reactions of individuals and groups caught up in culturally heterogeneous settings,” including the “behaviours, perceptions, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes” that result from living in such conditions

Question 56

Chapter 1: cross-cultural psych
Multicultural psych; fourth force in psychology, influential concept in psychology, Behaviourism, humanism

Answer 56

The notion that multiculturalism is the fourth force suggests that this perspective will have just as big an impact on the field of psychology as the first three forces: psychoanalysis, behaviourism, and humanism
In other words, calling multiculturalism the fourth force challenges us to acknowledge that
a) all behaviour occurs in and is impacted by a cultural context;
b) until recently, this fact has virtually been ignored by the field; and
c) once we understand the nature and contribution of culture, this understanding will dramatically alter and expand the way we study and understand behaviour.

Question 57

multicultural psychology
culture contact

Answer 57

Our definition of multicultural psychology is concerned with culture contact, or what happens when people of different backgrounds interact with one another. Bochner (1999) defined culture contact as “critical incidents where people from different cultural, ethnic, or linguistic backgrounds come into social contact with each other” (p. 22) and described two broad categories of contacts:
1. contacts that occur between members of a culturally diverse society or between people of many different backgrounds who live and work together on a daily basis; and
2. contacts that occur when people from one society visit another country, for purposes such as business, tourism, study, or assistance (e.g., Canadian Red Cross).
Multicultural psychology is interested in both types of cultural contact, although it emphasizes the first type. One important line of inquiry within the field of multicultural psychology is the examination of adjustment of newcomers in the society of settlement

Question 58

Chapter 1: cross-cultural psych
Socio-cultural concept of race
Race section of chapter; how it is used inappropriately

Question 59

Chapter 2: methodology
Qualitative vs quantitative design

Answer 59

In sum, quantitative research involves collecting numerical data and conducting statistical analysis in order to find patterns of relationships between study variables. One type of quantitative research method is correlational research, which examines the relation between study variables without making a causal inference. In other words, in correlational research, the results indicate that A is related to B, but it cannot be established that A causes B. In order to make a causal inference, experimental research is conducted where an independent variable is manipulated in order to examine its effect on a dependent variable.

Question 60

Chapter 2: methodology
Cross-sectional, longitudinal methodology

Answer 60

two common experimental research designs are cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.
Cross-sectional designs gather data across different age groups. For example, if we wanted to know whether people become more conservative as they grow older, we might collect data from individuals in their twenties, thirties, forties, fifties, sixties, and seventies to see whether the participant responses are more conservative in later age groups than in earlier age groups. One problem with this kind of research, however, is that it may not accurately characterize the progression of political thought. Younger people may feel more liberal about some issues, and older people may feel more conservative about them.
The longitudinal design follows a certain set of individuals over time. Thus, to find out about liberal and conservative attitudes, we might want to collect data on 20-year-old individuals and then follow them for 60 years to see whether their attitudes become more conservative. A disadvantage of this research design is the length of time it takes to collect and analyze the data. Researchers must have the vision to design such a study when they are very young, the funding to sustain the research, and the patience to wait 60 years for the results. Over the course of the study, some participants may pass away, and researchers may also pass away. Another disadvantage of this research is that the cohort of individuals may be unusual. For example, individuals who grew up during war and political volatility (e.g., the Iraq War, the War in Afghanistan, or the refugee crisis) may have an entirely different world view than individuals who grew up during various pandemics, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and COVID-19.
Research in aging has long advocated sequential designs in studying elderly populations (Nesselroade & Labouvie, 1985). The sequential design is a combination of the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

Question 61

Chapter 2: methodology
Biases in cross-cultural research; construct bias

Answer 61

Construct bias means that the construct that is being studied across cultures is not identical. For example, although the meaning of happiness is different across cultures, when Oishi and colleagues (Oishi et al., 2013) compared the definition of happiness in dictionaries from 30 countries, the results indicated a similarity: in 24 out of the 30 nations, “luck” or “fortune” was part of the definition.
However, there are some notable cross-cultural differences. For instance, there are differences between countries that speak the same language. In Guatemala, the definition of happiness includes luck and fortune, but in Spain, Argentina, and Ecuador, the definition does not include luck and fortune. Similarly, while in Australia the definition of happiness also encompasses luck and fortune, in the US it does not. (Canada was not included in the study.) Therefore, sensitive measures that capture people’s perspectives are vital when conducting cross-cultural research.

Question 62

Chapter 2: methodology
Biases in cross-cultural research; method bias

Answer 62

Method bias refers to three biases: sample bias, instrument bias, and administration bias (He & van de Vijver, 2012).

Question 63

Chapter 2: methodology
Biases in cross-cultural research; sample bias

Answer 63

Sample bias occurs when samples that are not equivalent and have different characteristics are compared (He & van de Vijver, 2012). For example, comparing university students in Culture A with farmers in Culture B is a sample bias, as the two samples have different characteristics and are not equivalent. Even when samples in both cultures are university students, sample bias may still occur. This is because going to university and gaining post-secondary education is a norm and more accessible in developed nations, such as Canada, than in developing nations, such as Malawi, where 85 per cent of the population live in rural areas and access to higher education is highly limited.

Question 64

Chapter 2: methodology
Biases in cross-cultural research; instrument bias

Answer 64

Instrument bias refers to the degree of familiarity with an instrument across cultures (He & van de Vijver, 2012). For example, university students in Canada are familiar with questions listed in multiple choice format. However, such a method of inquiry is rarely used among students of a theological seminary in Iran. Therefore, the Canadian students have an advantage over the Iranian students if multiple choice questions are used as a method of investigation.

Question 65

Chapter 2: methodology
Biases in cross-cultural research; response style bias

Answer 65

A type of instrument bias is response style bias, which refers to the tendency to agree rather than disagree with a statement and to use the endpoint of a scale (Dolnicar & Grun, 2007; Lentz, 1938). This means that participants’ responses to items are not a reflection of the content of the items but rather a reflection of their cultural or other demographic backgrounds, which leads to biased results. Cultural differences in response style have been well documented (He & van de Vijver, 2012; Smith & Fischer, 2008). For example, Dolnicar and Grun (2007), in their study of a sample of university students, found that Australian students tend to use the extreme points of scales (i.e., strongly disagree or strongly agree) more than Asian students do.

Question 66

Chapter 2: methodology
Biases in cross-cultural research; item bias

Answer 66

Item bias refers to the different meanings that an item could have across cultures. Van de Vijver and Meiring (2011) provide an example of item bias with this sentence: “I never [t]ake a long trip without checking the safety of my car.” Although this item makes sense for Canadian university students, it does not apply to students who are in developing countries, as many do not have a car, and even if they do, public transport—mainly bus transport—is used for long trips. Using a car to compare the risk avoidance behaviour of Canadian students with students in a developing country is problematic as the response score of this item means different things in each culture.

Question 67

Chapter 3; diversity of world views
WEIRD

Answer 67

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic

Most theories in psychology are based on studies with people from WEIRD (western, educated, industrial, rich, democratic) nations.
Limitation?
These theories may not be true for all people, regardless of gender, ethnicity, culture, socio-economic status, or lifestyle
Cross-cultural psychology addresses this limitation by studying people of different cultural backgrounds

Question 68

Chapter 3; diversity of world views
Schwartz theory of human values

Answer 68

The Schwartz value theory has been highly influential in psychology as he established the individual-level value framework

“Values and normative systems are the core aspects of societal culture. Culture also includes beliefs and practices”- Schwartz 2014

Culture is external
Schwartz argues that:
1. Societal culture is a latent, hypothetical construct
2. Societal culture is external to the individual
3. Societal culture underlies and is expressed in the functioning of societal institutions, in their organizations, practices, and policies,

Question 69

Chapter 3; diversity of world views
women

Answer 69

As we discussed earlier, women’s world views are often different from men’s, especially regarding safety and work expectations. This is particularly true for girls and women of colour:
-shadism
- mental health issues related to women, including a higher incidence of depression, postpartum depression, and eating disorders
-impact that violence can have on women’s views of the world
-Gender differences in expression of humour were also found, with men being more likely than women to display humour
-Although psychologists often note the differences between men and women, it is important to note that there are more gender similarities than one would expect

Question 70

Chapter 3; diversity of world views
World views of LQBTQ2+

Answer 70

Some LGBTQ2+ individuals must operate in an environment in which they do not know whether they will be accepted or rejected by their families (Hancock, 2003). On the one hand, if they are rejected by their families of origin, think of the world views that may result: because people whom they love and trust the most have rejected them, they may end up not trusting anyone or at least having a very difficult time doing so. On the other hand, those who do accept them may be considered a family of choice as opposed to their family of origin, and, as a result, they may be much more loyal to their family of choice.
Ever since Caitlyn Jenner (formerly Bruce Jenner) announced to the world that she was transgender (Bissinger, 2015), the topic of transgender individuals has been of interest in the broader society. However, there are still not many role models for females transitioning to males. Thus, transgender individuals are still searching for how to develop their respective world views

Question 71

Chapter 3; diversity of world views
world views based on social class and age

Answer 71

The world view based on social class can vary widely depending on how many resources people have. You might recall from your introductory psychology courses that Abraham Maslow had a theory based on a hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1970), where one must address one’s basic needs (e.g., food, water, safety) before addressing higher needs, such as self-esteem, aesthetics, and self-actualization. People who are in the upper class and are financially secure can feel freer to pursue ways to self-actualize—or realize their highest potential as a person—whereas those who are in the lower classes necessarily are concerned with putting food on the table and a roof over their heads. Such pursuit of very different needs necessarily will lead to different views of the world.
Poverty can have a lasting effect on one’s world view

In the 1980s, nuclear war between the United States and the Soviet Union was a real possibility. The world was viewed as dangerous, and drop drills were routine. This drill was to protect children from a nuclear blast in the hopes that some would survive an atom bomb dropped in their proximity.
Youth tend to have a different world view than older generations. Around the world, youth activism is an important part of creating change and re-examining policy and norms. The 2012 Idle No More movement in Canada sparked Indigenous youth to seek reconciliation and solidarity from the Canadian government through a series of political rallies and protests (Friedel, 2015).
There has also been an overwhelming global movement among youth demanding action on climate change policies, most notably through the Fridays for Future campaign. This campaign was founded by Greta Thunberg, a teenage Swedish activist who has gained recognition across the globe for her efforts to stop climate change

Question 72

Chapter 3; diversity of world views
White privilege

Answer 72

There is a notion of White privilege in Canadian society. White privilege means that those who are Caucasian can assume that characterizations and images of them will appear widely in the society. People of colour—including Black people, Indigenous Peoples, and immigrants—cannot assume the same thing, particularly with respect to positive images. Ryan Coogler, the African-American director of Black Panther, indicated that when he was growing up and it came time to wear a costume for Halloween, there were no superhero costumes representing someone who was Black

Question 73

Chapter 4; communication
Conversational rules

Answer 73

British philosopher Paul Grice (1975) proposes a set of conversational rules that guide people’s conversations (see Table 4.1). Grice suggests that we all engage in what is called the co-operative principle, that is, we strive to communicate with one another sincerely and effectively. He proposed four maxims that guide such conversations: quality, quantity, relevance, and manner.

Question 74

Conversational rules
Maxim of quality

Answer 74

The maxim of quality suggests that whenever we engage in a conversation, we strive to be truthful. Because you and I are engaged in a co-operative conversational relationship, you expect me to tell you the truth or give you my honest opinion on the topic we are discussing. If you can never be certain that I am telling you the truth, you may choose to break off our conversation. Alternatively, if you do not know that I am telling you a lie, we are not engaged in a co-operative relationship: I am manipulating you.

Question 75

Conversational rules
Maxim of quantity

Answer 75

The maxim of quantity suggests that each of us should contribute an appropriate amount to our conversation. In normal conversations, two speakers are generally expected to contribute equally. Have you ever tried to talk with a partner who dominated the conversation, never allowing you to contribute? Did that irritate you? If so, you were irritated because your conversational partner violated the maxim of quantity. However, in some contexts, it is appropriate for one person to dominate the conversation. For example, on talk shows or in television interviews, the interviewee often contributes more to the conversation than the host or interviewer, who asks only brief questions to move the conversation forward. This is also true in therapy, where the client is expected to contribute more to the conversation than the therapist, who mostly listens. What other contexts can you think of in which one partner is supposed to dominate the discussion?

Question 76

Conversational rules
maxim of relevance

Answer 76

The maxim of relevance suggests that we strive to remain on topic. If we suddenly start talking about baseball during a discussion of cross-cultural psychology, we are violating the maxim of relevance because our utterance does not relate to the topic, even though it may be truthful and of an appropriate length. Some people may go into long digressions when talking, and you may wonder whether they are being relevant. Often these people get back on track and say something that ends up being relevant to the topic, but by the time they get there, they have violated the maxim of quantity. The excerpt below from an interview between Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and German public broadcaster ARD shows how the maxim of relevance can be violated:
todenhöfer (t):Mr. President, members of the opposition and Western politicians say that you are the main obstacle for peace in Syria. Would you be ready to step down as president if this could bring peace to your country and stop the bloodshed?
bashar al-assad (ba) [the syrian leader]:The president shouldn’t run away from challenge and we have a national challenge now in Syria. The president shouldn’t escape the situation, but from the other side you can stay as president, stay in this position only when you have the public support. So, answering this question should be answered by the Syrian people, by the election not by the president. I can nominate myself, I can run for the election or not run, but to leave or not to leave, this is about the Syrian people.
The excerpt above shows how Assad flouted the maxim of relevance. Todenhöfer implied that Assad’s immediate step-down would bring peace and stop bloodshed in the country. His question was not about the presidential election but, rather, about Assad resigning as president. However, Assad replied that the one to decide the fate of a leader would be the Syrian people through election, not the president himself. However, in order to follow the maxim of relevance, Assad should have indicated whether he would step down. Instead, he consciously made his answer irrelevant to the topic

Question 77

Conversational rules
maxim of manner

Answer 77

The maxim of manner suggests that people should be clear in their communication and pay attention to normal standards of conduct. This is the broadest maxim and can include a wide range of issues. For example, you would not discuss quantum mechanics with a three-year-old, nor would you speak in a disrespectful manner to someone in a position of authority. You would not talk in an intentionally obscure manner, nor would you shout to someone standing less than a metre in front of you. In Canada and many other Western countries, the appropriate distance between two people engaging in a typical conversation is about half a metre, or arm’s length. It would violate the maxim of manner to stand 10 centimetres from that person’s face, and it would also be a violation if you were to stand 3 metres away.

Question 78

Chapter 4; communication
High vs. low context communication;

Answer 78

high communication involves verbal and non verbal aspect, low context everything that needs to be said is communicated through verbal

Question 79

Chapter 4; communication
Gender differences in communication

Answer 79

Hanafiyeh and Afghari (2014) did an analysis of gender differences in communication, particularly of the claims made by Lakoff (1975). The results indicate that many of the previous findings hold true. This includes female participants’ more frequent use of intensifiers (e.g., “very” or “so”), hedges (e.g., “sort of” or “kind of”), and tag questions (e.g., “aren’t you?” or “you think?”), indicating a less assertive style of communication.
Although research on gender and communication tends to focus on the differences between men and women, there are many similarities in their communication. For instance, the use of adverbs (e.g., badly or slowly) in order to answer questions of how or when seems to be fairly consistent between genders. In addition, it has been shown that males and females often have a great deal of non-verbal behaviours in common, including finger pointing and head nodding (Yang, 2010). Furthermore, these stereotypes of feminine versus masculine communications (for example, that women are worse at negotiating or that women are quieter than men) may actually be perpetuating the opposite communication style in women. A study by Von Hippel et al. (2011) demonstrated that when women are faced with these stereotypes about communication (e.g., men are more assertive leaders), they will sometimes adopt a more “masculine” communication style as a response (e.g., being more self-reliant, confident, and decisive). Therefore, it is difficult to tell what is truly so different in the communication of men and women when communication is such a dynamic and changing process.
Similarly, it was previously argued that women use more tentative language, including qualifiers such as “I think” or “It seems to me,” than men. Qualifiers are words or phrases that soften statements and affect the certainty of the statement. For example, “I may be wrong, but I think this class is interesting.” The phrase “I may be wrong” is a qualifier. However, women use qualifiers less than before. Bongiorno et al. (2014) argues that this is a reflection of a shift in women’s roles over time. In fact, women who are more assertive tend to experience less prejudice than women who are less assertive. This is possibly because women are treated more as equals in conversation than they were in previous decades. For these reasons, the use of hesitant language by women, including qualifiers, may have become less and less rewarded and, thus, has been diminishing in frequency.
Carol K. Goman (2016), in her research conducted in Canada, Europe, and the US, found that men tend to be more decisive, while women tend to be more collaborative. In addition, men tend to be better at monologue, and they signal dominant behaviour such as standing tall, expressing anger, and spreading their materials on a table while sitting. On the other hand, women tend to be better at dialogue, and they signal warm behaviour such as smiling, leaning forward, nodding their head, and orienting their body toward the listener. Goman (2016) also reported that, overall, men and women recognize similar competence and incompetence not only in themselves but also in each other and that sometimes they engage in behaviours that are in the opposite direction that these comparisons suggest. Therefore, it is important to note that these findings are about general differences between men and women, and they do not apply to every man and every woman. Indeed, differences in communication style are also a reflection of different preferences that people have.
Wood (1999) emphasizes that gender differences in communication are more a product of socialization than of biology. In other words, communication isn’t gendered at all but, rather, a product of how you grew up. There seem to be two sources of such socialization: family communication and communication between playmates. Paludi (1998) suggests that this socialization occurs very early because parents respond measurably differently to boys and girls. Will et al. (1976) found that differences in socialization happened even when people only thought they were interacting with a boy or a girl. They dressed an infant in pink and referred to it as Beth and dressed the same infant in blue and referred to it as Adam. The research participants played with the infant measurably differently—for example, offering Beth a doll and Adam a toy train.
Similarly, Basu et al. (2017) argue that gender is not solely based on one’s sex but that it is also a product of socialization. Stereotypical male and female behaviours are learned through this socialization process, and everything from culture, family, school, and peers can influence a person’s gender identity. Basu et al. (2017) found that boys and girls are treated differently once they enter adolescence, when gender norms become much more apparent. For example, in India, the place of a girl is expected to be in the home, whereas boys learn they have much more autonomy in their life. Therefore, it is possible that communication differences between genders are also shaped by gendered socialization since this socialization affects so many aspects of a child’s psychological development and behaviour.

Question 80

Chapter 4; communication
Cooperative principle maxim

Answer 80

British philosopher Paul Grice (1975) proposes a set of conversational rules that guide people’s conversations (see Table 4.1). Grice suggests that we all engage in what is called the co-operative principle, that is, we strive to communicate with one another sincerely and effectively. He proposed four maxims that guide such conversations: quality, quantity, relevance, and manner.

Question 81

Chapter 5; immigration
Asylum seekers, refugees, immigrants

Answer 81

According to the United Nations definition, international immigrants are individuals who move into a country other than that of their nationality or usual residence so that the country of destination effectively becomes their new country of usual residence. Immigrants usually have some time to consider their migration. Their decision may be based on their desire to improve the lives of their families. Adult immigrants may be employed in their own country and want to apply their knowledge, expecting that their new settling country will be able to provide them a higher salary and more success than their country of origin can afford them. Other adults may have trade or professional skills and are eager to be employed. Immigrants may have a job waiting for them or at least have some assistance in finding a job

Refugees are individuals that are forced to flee their country due to persecution, war, or violence. They are unable to return home or are too concerned for their safety to do so.

Asylum seekers, a special class of refugees, are individuals who request international protection but whose refugee claims have not been decided on by the country in which the claim is submitted.
In contrast to most immigrants, not all refugees want to leave their home countries. Often, family members who leave together do not stay together. Some die during flight, and their bodies are left behind without proper burial.

Question 82

Chapter 5; immigration
Acculteration

Answer 82

acculturation is a process as opposed to an outcome
Acculturation, the process by which groups and individuals change as a result of intercultural interactions (Redfield et al., 1936), can indeed be difficult—spanning myriad experiences across people and over time that have important social, economic, and psychological impacts.
Acculturation is clearly evident in immigrants and refugees because of the sharp differences in language, beliefs, values, and practices between groups. Acculturation is also seen within national groups, as is the case in cross-ethnic interactions within a country (e.g., Anglo-Quebecers). We focus our discussion on immigrants and refugees to help us make meaningful comparisons involving the acculturation process and facilitate further examination of cross-cultural topics.

Question 83

Chapter 5; immigration
Acculteration stress

Answer 83

According to How et al. (2018), refugees and immigrants have very different experiences when they arrive in their new settling country. Their stories of acculturation and stress may differ because of the differences in how they decided to migrate to a new country.

Whether an individual is an immigrant or a refugee, support networks become one of the most important factors within a societal context to assist the acculturation process. Although employment, language, roles, and education may be important, lack of support networks can be the greatest source of stress.

More specifically, certain migrating groups experience more culture shock and acculturative stress than others do. How can we explain that? Again, we go back to the question of which variables are to be taken into consideration when looking at a healthy acculturation process.

Question 84

Enculturation

Answer 84

can be considered the other side of the acculturation coin. Through enculturation, individuals retain or deepen their learning of their own cultural norms (B. S. Kim & Abreu, 2001). There is much less research into enculturation, yet researchers in one meta-analysis reported that enculturation did not predict negative mental health outcomes such as depression, anxiety, psychological distress, and negative affect. On the contrary, enculturation predicted positive mental health outcomes, specifically self-esteem, satisfaction with life, and positive affect (Yoon et al., 2013). This finding is important because individuals connecting with their culture of origin may build important resilience in the process.