final

Question 1

Emotional expression
Theories and studies;
James-lange theory;

Answer 1

emotion is tied to bodily reaction
Emotion is embedded into bodily experience
Jumping up and down associated with happiness
Jump up and down because you are happy, not when you are happy
Act brave, be brave
Act sad, isolate yourself, will experience sadness

Question 2

Emotional expression
Theories and studies;
Cannon-bard theory;

Answer 2

assimilation and reaction are two separate things
Various life situations can simultaneously elicit both an emotional experience and bodily responses, such as increased blood pressure or sweaty palms

Question 3

Schachter-singer theory

Answer 3

There are two crucial elements of emotional experience: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of this arousal
Physiological impacts of emotion are the same across culture, cognitive appraisal differentiates

Question 4

Emotional expression
Theories and studies;
Universal emotions;

Answer 4

no 1 single number of universal emotions that everyone agreed on

How many emotions?
In buddhist tradition the basic seven emotions are described as happiness, anger, sorrow, joy, love, hate, and desire
Most classifications include 5 to 9 emotions:
Anger, fear, happiness, sadness, and disgust are present in most national classification
Surprise, contempt, interest, shame, trust and anticipation are present in other classifications

Question 5

Emotional expression
Theories and studies;
Van bezooijen (1983) study on recognition of emotions amongst 3 groups

Answer 5

dutch did the best, boys did worse in joy
Recognition of emotional intonation in the voice
Van bezooijen, otto, heenan (1983)
Speakers were asked to a express a standard phrase with the nine emotions, disgust, surprise, shame, interest, joy, fear, contempt, sadness, and anger
The phrase “two months pregnant” was used for the study
Participants listened to recording in a language lab and they had to make a forced judgement
Dutch significantly did better than taiwanese or japanese subjects in identifying dutch vocal expressions of emotion
The other two groups were able to identify the great majority of the emotions examined
The two emotions that the taiwanese and japanese subjects identified most accurately were sadness and anger but joy lost most of its recognizability

Question 6

Emotional expression
Theories and studies;
Safdar (2009) study on emotional display rules

Answer 6

major findings, diff between americans, canadians and japanese, diff between americans and canadians
Emotional display rules are culturally prescribed rules that influence the emotional expression of people from any culture depending on what that particular culture has characterized as an acceptable expression of emotion
Emotional display rules across cultures
Canadians (N=199), Americans (N=256), and Japanese (N=380)
Display rule assessment inventory (DRAI), asking participants to judge the appropriateness of displaying certain emotions in different situations. Participants are given scenarios that vary with regard to 21 target persons, 2 locations, and 7 emotions
Means of expression of seven emotions
Japanese significantly expressed powerful emotions less than americans and canadians
Sadness and fear; powerless emotions, no significant diff between canadians, americans and japanese
Research findings;
Japanese display rules permit the expression of powerful emotions (anger, contempt, disgust) significantly less than those of the two north american groups
Japanese also think that they should express positive emotions (happiness, surprise) significantly less than canadian sample
When looking at gender; men iexpressed powerful emotions more than women and women expressed powerless emotions and happiness more than men
Norms of politeness in japan

Question 7

Leadership and negotiations
Theories and concepts
Cross-cultural negotiation process

Answer 7

, requires an early agreement on the distribution of talk and the exchange of information

Question 8

Leadership and negotiations
Theories and concepts
Study by guss (2000) with german and indian students;

Answer 8

imagine uncle left u company, simulation test, who did better what risks each engaged in, indian more engaged more defensive in decision making, germans more risky and expansive with decision making

Making decision using computer simulation
Study by guss
Students of business administration in India and Germany
Participants had to imagine that they were the director of a company that produces textiles in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (an equally unknown place for most of the Indian and German students)
Computer simulations, also called microworlds, were used
It allows the comparison not only of the outcome of the decision but also of the process of dynamic decision-making
The program shows an alarm message. A low number of alarms indicates good decision making
No differences were found in the strategic and tactical errors committed by the Indian and German students
In the general decision-making behaviour, no difference was found
The german participants were more successful- they had more total property after the 20 years
The german decision-making strategy could be described as expensive-risky, whereas the Indian strategy was a defensive-incremental one
German showed a relatively stable decision-making behaviour
individualism/collectivism and decision making
Studies show that individualistic values are related to active, and assertive decisions-making strategies, whereas collectivist values are related to and more passive, cautious, collaborative and avoiding strategies

Question 9

Leadership and negotiations
Theories and concepts
Leadership styles

Answer 9

Leadership
The ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization
Relationship orientation in leadership
Leaders in developing countries place high importance in establishing close interpersonal relationships with subordinates
Leaders assume responsibility for the followers and in return, they seek loyalty
This prevalent leadership style is referred to as paternalism
Power orientation in leadership
Leaders exercise power in developing countries
The decision making process reflects the power inequality. Usually the process is centralized and the decisions are made unilaterally
There is a duality of maintaining good interpersonal relations with the subordinates and acting in an authoritative way on the other, benevolent paternalism
Exploitative paternalism is also common in developing countries

Question 10

Leadership and negotiations
Theories and concepts
The GLOBE project;

Answer 10

types of leaders acceptable across culture; paternalistic but humble valued in developing

Question 11

Prejudice and discrimination
Use of scientific theories to justify systematic racism;

Answer 11

intelligence test, phrenology, eugenics
Revised binet-simon intelligence scale to stanford-binet intelligence scholl

Misuse of IQ test (early 20th century)
Lewis terman (1877-1956); controversial figure in psychology, developed IQ test further, believed intelligence is innate, little influence of environment on intelligence, nature is driving factor for development of intelligence, once we have high level of intelligence it is set
promoted IQ as a measure of innate ability
Revised binet-simon intelligence scale to stanford-binet intelligence scale
The scale was biased and favoured white, middle-class culture
Because intelligence is fixed and inherited, if certain groups score lower it proves their inferiority
He argued for inferiority of some groups
His ideas were used to support segregation policies
Highly influential, used in court cases

Question 12

Prejudice and discrimination
Study by TMU (2020) of 178 corporations

Answer 12

90% of executive positions occupied by white men
Diversity in canadian corporations;
a study by toronto metropolitan university (2020) of 178 corporations in calgary, montreal, toronto, and vancouver found:
Less than 1% of board members and executives are black
91% of board members are white
Other factors;
Lack of inclusive policies
Microagressions and stereotypes in workplace interactions; backhanded compliments

Question 13

Culture and identity
Theories and concepts
Facets of identity

Answer 13

Facets of identity
Identity is multifaceted and includes self-concept and how people perceive themselves in relation to others and the world around them
Personal identity
Social identity
Cultural identity
Cross-sectional identity

Question 14

Culture and identity
Theories and concepts
Independent and interdependent self

Answer 14

The independent vs interdependent self-construal
Markus & kityama 1991
Western or individualistic construal is based on the view that self is an independent and a separate entity from others
Eastern or collectivistic construal is based on the view that self is connected to others and inseparable from a social context
Self behaves, primarily, as a consequence of internal attributes vs. behaviour of interdependent self is contingent on what the actor perceives to be the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others
Interdependent may study something they are not interested in like engineering to impress others
The independent self gives rise to self-actualization vs the interdependent self gives rise to fulfilling and creating obligation
Interdependent self is more responsive to social environment than independent, independent takes into account environment as a way of expressing themselves
Consequences
Impact of independent vs interdependent self construal on self-perception (markus 1991)
More self reference (I am) in individualistic vs collectivistic societies
Internal attributes such as abilities or personalities are the most salient relevant information for those with an independent self-construal

Question 15

Culture and identity
Theories and concepts
Development of bicultural identity;

Answer 15

migration, cultural exposure
Bicultural identity
Refers to identifying with two distinct cultures
Develops in several ways;
Family characteristics; if parents are born outside of canada and you are born in canada you may have both cultural identities
Migration
Cultural exposure
Negotiating cultural identity
Bicultural identity can lead to;
Cultural integration
Cultural conflicts; family values major one, what is accepted in the family

Question 16

Culture and identity
Theories and concepts
Third-culture kid

Answer 16

Third culture kid
(useem 1950) refers to expatriate children who spend their formative years in cultural contexts different from their or their parents culture
TCK is a specific category of multicultural identity

Question 17

Culture and identity
Theories and concepts
Choubak and safdar (2023) study on intersectionality of group membership

Answer 17

4 groups (iranian, nigerian, british), 2 genders, 2 sexualities, measured bias towards groups
British male immigrants rated high on competence but not as high on warmth
Examining intersectionality
Choubak and safdar (2023) examined the interplay of the three social group memberships in the bias patterns toward immigrants
Participants (N= 1,105) Canadians, female N= 630 (57%), male N= 466 (42%)
96% were heterosexual
80% were university students
Methodology
Participants were presented different vignettes. Before seeing the vignette, each participant was presented with a cover story, stating that the study was part of a lager research exploring media consumption and human psychology
Information was provided on the immigrants background (age, education, job credentials) and nationality (British, chinese, nigerian, iranian), gender and sexuality
Same competence/education and job experience, differing genders and races
Participants had to rate how they view the person on positive biases; warmth and competence
Graph for stereotype ratings by ethnicity, gender and sexual orientation
Men were perceived to be more competent
Nigerian lesbian women were perceived to be most competent compared to other women, and more than nigerian gay man
Iranian lesbian women also considered highly competent
If women comes from country were sexual inequality is high and they are homosexual, going against the grain, perceived as competent
Women perceived as warmer than men
Gay men perceived to be warmer than straight men
Warmth associated with femininity and sexuality
Conclusion
Heterosexual british men perceived more competent than iranian and nigerian heterosexual men
For the most part, heterosexual men tended to receive more extreme scores than their non-prototypical counter parts, non proto-typical immigrants, on the other hand, received more mixed bias patterns
Heterosexual women, as a group, followed most of the paternalistic bias pattern, as most fell
into the high-warmth and low-competence
cluste
A pattern on prototypicality (i.e., hetersosexual man) vs non-prototypicality i.e., all
women, gay men) emerged.
* Biases directed towards the heterosexual men
of each ethnic background of focus
resembled the biases generally directed
towards their respective ‘generic ethnic group’
in society.

Question 18

Physical health
Health beliefs and practices
Witchcraft amongst Azande in southern Sudan

Answer 18

organized belief on how to deal with health and death, even if it does not work, belief does not drop
Witchcraft
Witchcraft amongst Azande in southern Sudan was studied by Evans-pritchard
Azandes beliefs; even if witchcraft does not work, their beliefs do not change

Question 19

Physical health
Health beliefs and practices
Holistic healing beliefs from India;

Answer 19

Ayurveda is ancient system of holistic healings based on balancing three elements or Doshas; Vata or air/ether, Pitta (digestion/metabolism) or fire/water, and Kapha (stability/structure-nourishement) or earth/water

Question 20

Physical health
Health beliefs and practices
Traditional chinese medicine;

Answer 20

based on ying and yang

Traditional chinese medicine is ancient system and is based on balance of Yin and Yang, acupuncture, and herbal remedies
White; light, warm, aggressive, independent, self-sufficient, positive
Dark; moon, cool, passive, dependent, nurturing, negative

Question 21

Physical health
Health beliefs and practices
Universalism and relativism argument for female circumcision

Answer 21

Universalism/relativism
Female circumcision
It is an operation that involves excision of all or part of the clitoris
It is followed in at least 20 African countries and some Arab countries
Type of circumcision (how much is cut) varies
Relativism argument;
The operation will ensure the attenuation of sexual drives and protects the women against her oversexed nature, saving her from temptation or disgrace, lowers libido
Universalism argument;
Certain practices especially involving women and children should be condemned. Government and communities should curb such practices.
Culture-sensitive programs
One of the key activities that psychologists can help with is the creation of culturally sensitive programs that can help people to take immediate steps and improve their health

Question 22

Physical health
Health beliefs and practices
Leene et al (2008) study in rural area of guatemala

Answer 22

Leene (2008) study in rural area of guatemala
The program was implemented in 21 communities. Participants were health promotors and rural women a total of 410 indigenous women.
The program had 4 modules;
1. Explaining factors affecting health of women
2. Learning about the relation between health and nutrition
3. Discussing hygeine
4. Sexuality
3 months after implementation, significant improvement in cleanliness, talking about taboo topicas such as sex, preparing nutritious food etc

Question 23

Mental health
Definitions and concepts

Answer 23

v How is “mental health” defined?
* Is it a lack of mental illness?
* Is it being happy?
* Is it not having emotional
pendulums?
Life below zero, at zero and
above zero

Question 24

Mental health
Definitions by WHO

Answer 24

World Health Organization (2022) defined mental health
as “a state of mental well-being that enables people to:
1. Cope with the stresses of life
2. Realize their abilities
3. Learn well and work well
4. Contribute to their community
However, “culture influences how we define a problem
AND how we solve it” (Hernandez et al., 2009, p.1047)

Question 25

Mental health
Central vs peripheral symptoms

Answer 25

Inclusive approach to clinical psychology
An inclusive approach to psychopathology combines two perspectives. Therefore, each disorder can manifest as:
Central symptoms (etic component)
A set of central symptoms that can be observed in practically all world populations

Peripheral symptoms (emic component)
A set of symptoms that are culture specific.

Major depressive disorder
Central symptoms
Dysphoria, anxiety, tension, lack of energy, and ideas of insufficiency
Peripheral symptoms of depression varies cross culturally
Guilt (western), headaches (latino and mediterranean), weakness, imbalance, and tiredness (china and asian countries), problems with heart (middle eastern nations)
Sadness across cultures; body knows sadness

Question 26

Mental health
Depression outside of western context

Answer 26

DEPRESSION BEYOND WESTERN CONCEPTS
Acceptance of hopelessness-
Buddhist concept
* The cultural ideology of Buddhists in Sri Lanka makes depression an undiagnosable condition
* Hopelessness is central and expected
* Not depressive, just good Buddhist.

Restructuring of depression- Hopi
* Hopituh Sinom
(Indigenous Native
American)
* No equivalent to
depression but 5
separate illnesses-
* Worry Sickness,
Unhappiness,
heartbreak, drunken
like craziness and
disappointment
pouting

Un- bottled emotions - Kaluli
* Kaluli from tropical forest N of Mount Bosavi
(Papua New Guinea)
* Not Socialized for
suppressing emotions
* No self-blame for
misfortunes- more
outward blame and
anger
* Thus- No word for
depression
* Somatic expression

Question 27

Mental health vs mental illness
Different terminology

Answer 27

What distinguishes common everyday feeling from
a clinical disorder?
Psychological dysfunction or abnormal behaviours
are associated with
1. Distress
2. Impairment in functioning(occupational, social
and interpersonal)
3. A response that is not typical or culturally
expected. (Barlow and Durand, 2012)
MENTAL ILLNESS
When abnormal behavior is persistent and invasive- that becomes
a disorder.
PREVALENCE OF MENTAL ILLNESSES
As per the WHO World Mental Health Report, 2019-
* 970 (52.4% Female) million individuals living with
mental disorders in 2019.
* 301 million (31%) had anxiety disorders and 280
million (28.9%) with depressive disorders.
* 283 million- alcohol use disorder
* 36 million had drug use disorder.
* Schizophrenia (1 in 200 adults) prevalent in 24
million
* 703 thousand lost their life to suicide
Prevalence across countries
* Common in all countries
* Slightly more common in high-income
countries (15.1%) than in low-income
(11.6%)
* Americas (15.6%), East Mediterranean (14.7%), Europe

Question 28

Psychological treatment
The use of mental health treatment varies across ethnic groups due to a variety of factors

Answer 28

Psychotherapy is a western, cultural practice
Use of mental health services
Asians seek disproportionately fewer psychological treatment services in north america than whites
Blacks and first nations tend to use outpatient mental health services at a higher rate than whites
Ethnic minority patients have a tendency to drop out of treatmetn before it can be effective more frequently than whites

Question 29

Psychological treatment
Psychotherapy

Answer 29

Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is the treatment of psychological disorders through psychological means, generallly involving verbal interaction with a professional therapist
Cultural settings can affect diagnostic practices and psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is re-socialization: “a method for correcting faulty individual learning of the culture’s precepts”
For a therapy to be accepted in a society it must make sense in that society

Question 30

Debate on cultural competency

Answer 30

The debate on cultural competency
Competency is an ability to perform a task adequately
In therapy is the ability to conduct psychotherapy competently with a range of culturally diverse clients
VS
Cultural competency; The ability to provide effective treatment which differs according to the client’s ethnicity
General competency
General competency and cultural competency overlap but have distinct effects
Fuetres et al reported that ethnic minority clients rated their therapists as being higher in multicultural competency if the therapists were rated high on therapeutic alliance and empathy which are relevant in all treatments
Cultural competency
Constantine (2003) found that cultural competency was related to ethnic minority clients satisfaction beyond general competency

Culturally competent therapist
Sue et al (1982;1992) argue that culturally competent therapists should have:
Cultural awareness; being aware of own biases, aware of own ethnocenturism
Cultural knowledge; being knowledgable about clients culture, how what they went to get out of therapy fits with cultural practice
Cultural skills; necessary skills to engage in a manner that is culturally meaningful to client; sensitive, culturally relevant

Criticism of cultural competency
Is cultural competency motivated by political correctness?
Stereotyping ethnic minorities; predisposed notion of client based on culture, assuming they hold traditional values
Ignoring other diversity characteristics
Over- emphasizing the role of culture in mental health
Current thoughts on cultural competency
Focus on culture is a reaction to ethnocentric bias inherent in psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is a cultural phenomenon
Some see talking as interfering with thinking and that clients should think more talk less
Cultural competency lacks theoretical framework and adequate measures of the construct, underdeveloped

Question 31

Psychological treatment
Psychotherapy
2 psychotherapy in japan;

Answer 31

Counselling and psychotherapy in Japan
Nippoda (2000) examine attitudes of Japanese toward counselling and psychotherapy
One third of participants answered that they do not know if they want to utilize counselling service as they do not know what it is about
In japan, mental health issues are mainly dealt with according to medical model, or people might go to elders for advice
For personal development, activities such as martial arts, flower arrangements or the tea ceremony are used, also to avoid going to psychotherapist
Flower arrangement
Precise way of putting flowers together
Three dimensions; shen (longer stem), so (shorter stem), less about colour more about shape of leaves and how they stand, idea is to increase harmony
Considered discipline are
3 main branches and their connection
Chaji, sado (tea ceremony)
Highly ritualized
Way of being yourself into harmony with environment
4 principles; harmony, respect, purity, tranquility
Using all senses
Therapeutic relationship in Japan
The doctor-patient relationships are reflected in therapist-client relationships
Clients tell the therapist about their issues, and then the clients just wait for the therapist to analyse them. Then clients expect the therapist to tell them what to do
This can be understood within hierarchical structure of japanese culture
Culture specific treatment
In the 1920s, a japanese psychiatrist named shoma morita developed a therapy to treat neroses that is based in part on buddhist principles
Morita therapy focuses on rest and isolation and it generally lasts from 4 to 8 weeks
Complete isolation
It is the foundation for a form of treatment called constructive therapy/living
Naikan therapy
Means “to look” and “within” and based on buddhist practice
It involves 15 hours a day of concentrated introspection
Naikon therapy is also called quiet therapy
Yoshimoto (1974) says naikon is not a talking cure. He says “talking is easy, naikon is hard”
Naikon is a residential procedure (lasting around one week- the client is, then, a guest in the therapist’s house/clinic)
Practicing naikan therapy think of your mother or the person who was your primary care giver

Question 32

Current and future state of science
Mainstream psychology is culture bound and culture blind

Answer 32

A global view of psychology
Mainstream psychology has been accused of being culture-bound and culture blind
Most of what is published in psychology journals and textbooks takes a western perspective and ignores the psychologies that have been developed by scholars across the globe to address concerns relevant to other countries

Question 33

Current and future state of science
Most people are ethnocentric, ways to catch ourselves and develop skills to recognize this

Answer 33

Most people are ethnocentric and feel that others must learn about their culture rather than they should learn about other cultures

Question 34

Current and future state of science
Global village analogy; most spoken language, most practiced religion

Answer 34

The world village
Imagine a village of 1000 people that represents the planet Earth
Gender distribution
Men 505
Women 495
Place of origin
Asia 610
Africans 130
Europeans 120
Latin americans 80
North americans 50
Oceanians /other 10
Language distribution
Mandarin 166
English 79
Spanish 66
Russian 42
Arabic 40
Bengali 33
Portuguese 30
Hindustani 28
Malay-indonesian 27
French 20
Religion distribution
Christians 330
Muslims 180
Non-religious and atheist 160
Hindus 140
Other religions 127
Buddhists 60
Jewish 3
Wealth
Live below the internationally defined poverty line 530 (less than $2 US dollar per day)
Have access to computer and internet 157
Have a bank account 300
Have a post-secondary education 70
Adults who are illiterate 335

Question 35

Current and future state of science
wealth distribution

Answer 35

1000 population ¾ of worlds wealth is held by 100 people
Wealth distribution in canada
Two richest men in canada have 30% of wealth
Global wealth distribution chart

Wealth distribution
¾ of the total world income is controlled by less than 100 people, if the world population was 1,000
Wealth inequality not only is a global problem, it also is a national crisis within rich countries
Wealth inequality in america vid
5000 americans asked how they thought wealth was distributed in the US
1% of america has 40% of nations wealth

Question 36

Current and future state of science
Cycle of poverty

Answer 36

The cycle of poverty
Financial distress > breakdown of family > poor housing > poor education > lack of skilled jobs > increased proximity to crime

Question 37

Current and future state of science
Past and current state of science;

Answer 37

AI, dispenser vid
The modern state science
The current state of science:
Produced knowledge has inequitable access;
Not neutral,
Encompass biases and racism in its “conception, design, and implementation”
Racist soap dispenser vid
Racist technology; face recognition (respondus)
Biased algorithms used by AI systems
Low access to technology and low representation in technology industry

Question 38

Current and future state of science
Study of 177 leading silicon valley tech firms

Answer 38

findings, associations, higher number of white male in executive positions, lower number of asian employes, higher number of white women in executive positions, more latino and asian employees
More women in higher up positions promotes diversity
Demographic diversity in tech
Study of 177 leading silicon valley tech firms
Few women, black or latino employees
More than 80% of executives are white male across all large silicon valley firms
In large tech firms asians (mena nd women) are concentrated in technical positions and less well represented in manager and executive positions
On average black men make up less than 1.5% of employees in professional, manager and executive positions
Latinos make up less than 3% of employees in professional and manager positions. Commonly there are no latino employees in executive jobs
An association was found between the number of white men in executive jobs and the employement of fewer asian (men and women) in professional jobs
Conversely, an association was found between the number of white women in management jobs with the employment of more professional black women and latinas

Question 39

Stereotype

Answer 39

A stereotype is a generalization about a group or its members based on categorization. It can be an accurate reflection of a group’s norm; an overgeneralization, applying the norm to every member of the group or not allowing for variation about this norm; or simply inaccurate. Stereotypes are cognitive categorizations of people based on some demographic characteristic and do not necessarily convey positive or negative evaluations. For example, to say that Asians tend to be more collectivistic than English Canadians is an accurate stereotype. To insist that all Asians are collectivistic is an overgeneralization. However, to say that Asians are collectivistic is not to make a positive or a negative assessment of Asians based on this categorization.

• Stereotypes are considered the cognitive component of categorization.

Question 40

Prejudice

Answer 40

A prejudice is a judgment about a group or its members based on their categorization. Prejudice may be positive or negative, but it is typically thought to be negative. For example, someone may be prejudiced against Asians because they are collectivistic and tend to suppress individual freedoms or not express individualistic creativities.

• Prejudices are considered the evaluative component of categorization.

Question 41

Discrimination

Answer 41

Discrimination is a negative behaviour toward a group or its members based on their categorization. For example, an Asian individual may not be selected for an assignment because it is assumed that this individual’s collectivistic tendencies will not allow this person to be creative enough.

• Discrimination is considered the behavioural component of categorization.

Question 42

Racism

Answer 42

Racism is a discriminatory behaviour that has institutional power behind it. This applies to people with institutional backing (those on the upside of power) who discriminate against individuals on the downside of power. For example, an individual may discriminate against an Asian individual and be backed by institutions of power. Most social psychologists feel that racism is a routine mistreatment of individuals on the downside of power, meaning that the mistreatment is part of institutional practices.

• Racism is considered the institutional component of categorization.

Question 43

6.2 describe stereotype threat and conditions under which it occurs;

Answer 43

stereotype threat—the threat that individuals belonging to a group that is negatively stereotyped will confirm that stereotype when confronted with a difficult task that purports to measure differences in abilities.
For example, Steele and Aronson (1995) reported on freshman African-American students who were extremely accomplished in English, as measured by their verbal scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test, who were given the Graduate Record Examination subject test in English. The subject test was four years beyond their education level, but the students did not know that it was designed for students who were far more advanced than they were at the time. Still, these students performed just as well as their European-American counterparts when both groups were led to believe that the test was simply a very difficult test that was being administered because they had previously proven how accomplished they were. When the students were led to believe that the test would measure differences between African Americans and European Americans, however, African-American student performance decreased.
The same pattern was demonstrated for women taking mathematics tests. Freshman women who had received extremely high quantitative scores on their Scholastic Aptitude Test were given the Graduate Record Examination subject test in mathematics. Again, these women performed as well as their male counterparts did when they were led to believe that the test was simply a very difficult one. However, when they were led to believe that the test might measure gender differences in mathematics, the women’s scores decreased.

Steele (2001) states that stereotype threat occurs under specific circumstances.
1. an individual must excel in an area that is contrary to the stereotype. African Americans are not stereotypically considered to excel in English in comparison with their European-American counterparts

2. the stereotype must be negative. Verbal and mathematical skills are highly valued, and deficits in those areas are considered negative; politics are important in that they relate to how the country is run. although that is a negative stereotype about Asians, deficits in dancing are not threatening because dancing is not a highly valued skill in mainstream Canada or the US.
3. the area in which the individual excels must be important to that individual. The African-American and female research participants in C. M. Steele’s earlier studies excelled in English and mathematics, respectively, in high school, and the students valued those skills. They were at the top of their high school classes and received much recognition for their accomplishments. The Asian student taking the writing test was in a graduate program learning to become a therapist, an occupation in which verbal fluency skills are important.
4. the test of the individual’s skills must be challenging. Clearly, tests four years beyond one’s current training would be challenging. In the example of the Asian student, the writing test was not difficult and merely involved developing a written argument about a topic, but because failing the test would mean not receiving a degree from the university, it was a high-stakes test

Question 44

6.3 explain the processes that lead to the development of negative stereotypes

Answer 44

If a person of colour—who is in the statistical minority and by definition is less frequently encountered by the majority population—engages in a negative behaviour, the observer sees two minority events happening together and registers that co-occurrence. Hamilton calls this overestimation illusory correlation because the observer sees a correlation between the two events that does not really exist. Thus, if, for example, people with European and African-Caribbean background living in Canada have engaged in the same percentage of shoplifting in the past, store managers and workers may feel that people with African-Caribbean background engage in a greater amount of shoplifting (illusory correlation) because the co-occurrence of the minority group (African-Caribbean) and the minority behaviour (shoplifting) in the past had a greater impact on perception.

One way of understanding Hamilton’s series of studies is to view illusory correlation as a form of Tversky and Kahneman’s well-known availability heuristic. A heuristic is a mental shortcut or rule of thumb used for making calculations or assessments of sometimes complex circumstances

The less benign and more malicious reason for the development of negative stereotypes is the need of people in power to justify the suppression of those who do not have power. This stance is based on cognitive dissonance theory. According to Festinger, attitudes follow behaviour. Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that when two cognitions are in conflict (dissonance), people are motivated to reduce that dissonance, just as they would be motivated to reduce hunger or thirst. Thus, if we were to observe ourselves behaving badly toward another person or a group of people, we might engage in the following internal dialogue: “I am a good person, but I behaved badly toward that other person. That person must have deserved such bad treatment.” This reduces the dissonance and leaves us feeling justified in engaging in such negative behaviour.

Question 45

6.4 recognize the characteristics of systematic racism in the criminal justice system and politics;

Answer 45

Stories about racism have always been present in our society as part of the news cycle. However, with the advent of social media, the voices of social activists are more difficult to ignore and society is becoming more aware of racism. For example, for communities of colour, police brutality has long been considered a problem and a form of racism. Over the decades and in recent years, several incidents have received national attention, primarily involving the beating and/or killing of unarmed Black and Indigenous men and women by police.

Question 46

6.5 identify components of overt versus covert racism;

Answer 46

Overt racism is “old-style” racism, in which those in the majority openly engage in hostile and aggressive acts against people of colour without fear of reprisal. Such acts include slavery, lynchings, residential schools, and legal segregation (Jones, 1997). Although overt racism may be thought of as a thing of the past, many people have reported being the victim of overt racism or seeing it first-hand.
For example, Henry (2019) states that in Ontario in 1850, the Common Schools Act made it legal to segregate schools in terms of race, leading to the establishment of all-Black schools

Ridley (1995) identifies covert racism as a modern form of racism that seems subtle and even deniable. According to Ridley, covert racism can be either intentional or unintentional. Covert, intentional racism occurs when individuals are aware that they are acting in a racist manner but try to disguise their true intent with a plausible story.

Question 47

6.6 recognize the characteristics of aversive racism and colour-blind racial ideology;

Answer 47

Gaertner and Dovidio (1986) discuss aversive racism, a form of modern racism practised by individuals who believe that they are not racist and who would find it offensive or aversive if they were thought to be racist. When their unconsciously racist views surface, these individuals cite logical or common-sense reasons for their views and thereby deny that they are racist. Therefore, a characteristic of aversive racism is that the individual endorses both egalitarian values and negative views toward minorities groups.

colour-blind racial ideology essentially suggests that people often attempt to pretend that race and racism will not exist if people ignore race or ethnicity. According to Neville et al. (2013), colour-blind racial ideology contains two dimensions: colour evasion and power evasion. The colour evasion dimension asserts that there are no differences in the way that people are treated based on the colour of their skin. The power evasion dimension asserts that any differences in accomplishments are completely based on the individual’s own work and not due to any advantages of skin colour built into the system.

Implicityly we act racist at times

Question 48

6.7 know the three categories of racial microaggressions and strategies that are appropriate for combating them;

Answer 48

A racial microaggression is a small slight or offence that may be intentional but is mostly unintentional and does not harm the target of the offences in any major way; however, the offence can accumulate and become burdensome over time

three categories: microassault, microinsult, and microinvalidation.

A microassault is similar to our conceptions of “old-fashioned” racism. These are “blatant verbal, nonverbal, or environmental” attacks that are intentionally discriminatory or biased. Racial epithets and discriminatory hiring practices fall into this category

A microinsult is an unintentional behaviour or verbal comment conveying rudeness or insensitivity. For example, a Blackfoot Piikani First Nations woman recalls an incident she experienced while working as a bank teller in a small Mormon community. A customer refused her service simply because he did not want her to have access to his bank account

A microinvalidation is related to a microinsult in that it is generally unintentional while also dismissive of the experience of people of colour. A microinvalidation excludes, negates, or dismisses the perceptions of the target person. For example, Dene, a First Nations person in Canada who was adopted by a White family, recalls being told as a child that his teachers’ racist remarks were of no concern to him because he was adopted by a White family, which meant that he too was also White

Question 49

6.8 explain the five levels of the biopsychosocial model and its relevance to racism

Answer 49

Remember, the biopsychosocial model has five levels:
1. Biological
2. Cognitive-affective; thoughts and feelings; Stereotyping and prejudice
3. Social-interpersonal; dynamics of social relationships. Generally, when people use the term racism, they are referring to interpersonal racism, or the negative treatment of someone simply because they belong to a particular racial group. As mentioned previously, this is the definition of discrimination
4. Social institutional; Examples of institutional racism include racial profiling by law enforcement, biased sentencing by the criminal justice system, and bias in educational standardized tests.
5. Cultural; defines cultural racism as the belief that one’s own culture is inherently superior to another. Cultural racism is similar to implicit racial attitudes, or ideas and opinions individuals hold about race, of which they are unaware

Question 50

6.9 distinguish between White-European privilege and allied behaviours.

Answer 50

White privilege is similar to male privilege in that many unearned advantages are given to individuals with White-European background without examination. If society truly is fair, such advantages should not exist. McIntosh presented many instances that might otherwise be unexamined but that underscore the advantages of being a White European in society, such as turning on the television or looking at the front page of the newspaper and seeing people of one’s ethnicity and skin colour widely and positively represented. For example, unless one is viewing a martial arts movie, one rarely sees an Asian male on a television program or in a movie.

One step in helping to form a more perfect union is to produce more people like McIntosh—individuals who have power merely by their status but who are willing to give up some of their power to help those on the downside of power gain more equality, what writers in the field call a development of allies. Allies are those individuals on the upside of any form of unearned power and privilege—such as White privilege, male privilege, heterosexual privilege, and ability privilege—who are willing to work for social justice in giving those on the downside of power and privilege equal status

Question 51

Chap 6: stereotypes and prejudice
All of the following are examples of systemic racism
around the world in the twenty-first century except
______________.
A. Muslim individuals being targets for violence and
hate crimes following various events such as 911
attacks in 2001 and the 2015 attacks in
Paris/France
B. People of colour making up the majority of
incarcerated individuals internationally
C. Individuals with darker skin feeling pressured to
become lighter-skinned through various cosmetic
means
D. Black men being regularly and frequently stopped by police in Canada and other countries in
disproportionate amounts compared with White men

Answer 51

C. Individuals with darker skin feeling pressured to
become lighter-skinned through various cosmetic
means

Question 52

Chapter 7: identity development
Tripartite model of personal identity;

Answer 52

According to the adage mentioned above, on the individual level, “all individuals are, in some respects, like no other individuals.” Each person is unique in genetic makeup, personality characteristics, and personal experiences. Our individual uniqueness sets us apart from all other human beings and is an important part of our identity.
The second part of the adage says, “All individuals are, in some respects, like some other individuals.” This is the group level of personal identity, which focuses on similarities and differences among individuals. As mentioned earlier, society divides people into groups based on demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status, religious preference). Therefore, a part of our identity is based on our membership in these various groups. The third part of the saying reflects the universal level of personal identity: “All individuals are, in some respects, like all other individuals.” We all share some characteristics as members of the human race, such as biological and physical similarities, common life experiences (e.g., birth, death, love, fear), and common practices or behaviours (e.g., language).

Question 53

Chapter 7: The five-factor model (FFM)

Answer 53

The five-factor model (FFM) of personality can be remembered using the word OCEAN as an acronym. It is made up of the following factors:
(O) Openness to experience
(C) Conscientiousness
(E) Extraversion
(A) Agreeableness
(N) Neuroticism

Question 54

Chapter 7: identity development
Independent and interdependent self

Answer 54

People from the Northern hemisphere and Westerners tend to have an independent self: they value autonomy and being unique. People from the Southern hemisphere and Easterners tend to have an interdependent self: they value harmony in social contexts and fitting in

This implies that interdependent individuals’ self-representations are closely linked to their representation of others. Additionally, Markus and Kitayama (1991) hypothesize that independent individuals’ identities are heavily based on their personal attributes and abilities, but interdependent individuals’ identities do not rest so heavily on these qualities.

Question 55

Chapter 7: identity development
Racial salience

Answer 55

The extent to which one’s ethnicity is relevant in self-concept in a particular situation.

Question 56

Chapter 7: identity development
Identity synthesis

Answer 56

The stage or status in which a non-heterosexual individual is able to integrate all aspects of their identities, including ethnicity and gender.

Question 57

5 stage model of biracial identity development

Answer 57

At the personal identity stage, a young child’s sense of self is independent from that child’s ethnic group. Identity is instead based primarily on personal factors, such as self-esteem, that develop within the context of the family. In the second stage, the choice of group categorization stage, the young person feels pressure to choose one identity over the other. That pressure may come from family members, peers, physical appearance, or society. In the next stage, the enmeshment/denial stage, feelings of guilt and self-hatred arise from choosing one group over another. A positive multi-ethnic identity begins to emerge in the appreciation stage, when individuals begin to broaden their perspective and begin to explore the previously rejected side of their ethnic heritage. Finally, in the fifth stage, the integration stage, the person sees the benefits of embracing both identities.

Question 58

Chapter 7: identity development
* Which of the following stages is NOT
part of Poston’s five-stage model of
biracial identity development?
A) Integration
B) Enmeshment/denial
C) Personal identity
D) Identity confusion

Answer 58

D) Identity confusion

Question 59

Chapter 8: physical health
Defining health and disparitires;

Answer 59

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”

Health-care disparities are defined as differential access to health care and health insurance, which can be at the institutional level or at the patient-provider level. Institutional-level health-care disparities result from structures within the health-care system, including rules and regulations.

Question 60

Chapter 8: physical health
Child mortality, hiv, infectious diseases, suicide

Answer 60

the highest rates of HIV infection are in the African regions.

Low-income countries (e.g., most African and Southeast Asian countries) have much higher mortality rates from infectious diseases, such as malaria and hepatitis B, than high-income countries (e.g., North American and European countries).

In low-income countries (e.g., African regions and Southeast Asia), life expectancy is less than that of wealthy countries, with the most at-risk group being children under five years old. Low-income countries expect only 21 per cent of their population to reach 70+ years of age, whereas high-income countries expect 72.5 per cent of their population to reach 70+ years of age.

Question 61

Chapter 8: physical health
Causes of health disparities;

Answer 61

poverty and racism

Question 62

Chapter 8: physical health
Barriers for accessing health-care system amongst immigrants and indigenous people

Answer 62

One of the challenges that some immigrants face when accessing the health-care system is language difficulties. It is common that newcomers bring friends or family members to appointments to assist with communication. These language brokers have no translation or interpretation training and support communication between two or more people

the issue of transportation between communities and hospitals. Due to the number of small remote communities in Northern Canada, moving patients from their communities to nearby hospitals becomes very difficult and most often requires a helicopter or plane escort. It can take up to six days for a plane to be available to pick up a patient depending on the location and the conditions of travel. In emergency situations, the speed of a helicopter or plane can mean the difference between living and dying.
The number of health professionals in these remote communities is also incredibly low, and emergencies must often be handled by underqualified personnel

Question 63

Chapter 8: physical health
Immigrant health paradox;

Answer 63

first generation immigrants have better health outcome than native despite lower socioeconomic status

Question 64

Chapter 8: physical health
Who are the most likely language
brokers for recent immigrants in
health care settings?
A) Trained interpreters
B) Doctors that speak the same
language
C) Nurses that speak the same
language
D) Children of immigrant parents

Answer 64

D) Children of immigrant parents

Question 65

Chapter 9: mental health
Different classifications of mental health disorders (DSM, ICD); which is more effective for cultural variation

Answer 65

Diagnoses in many large studies were based on DSM criteria. The DSM is based on Western diagnostic concepts that may not fully recognize cultural variations in experience and expression of psychological symptoms, such as the tendency for somatization. In addition, questions may not be fully understood, respondents may not answer in a completely honest manner, and interviewers may not accurately interpret participants’ responses. The fourth concern is that available diagnostic categories may not fully cover the range of symptoms or disorders experienced across cultural groups, such as cultural syndromes

Question 66

Chapter 9: mental health
Mental health service used amongst minorities

Answer 66

In 2009, the Diversity Task Group of the Mental Health Commission of Canada released a report highlighting that immigrant, refugee, ethnocultural, and racialized populations face more barriers to accessing mental-health services in Canada than those outside these groups.

Question 67

Chapter 9: mental health
Culture-bound syndromes;

Answer 67

eating disorder, prevalence much higher in western rich countries than others

Question 68

Chapter 9: mental health
Prevalence of mental disorder in ethnic groups, not percentage but patterns, groups higher in suicide etc

Answer 68

Rates of death from suicide are highest in European regions for men and Southeast Asian regions for women. The lowest rates are seen in the Eastern Mediterranean region for both men and women

Question 69

Chapter 9: mental health
Culture-bound values include
communication patterns between client
and counsellor. Following this value, in
Western cultures, the patient is expected
to _______________.
A) demonstrate respect for the therapist’s
authority
B) let the therapist do most of the talking
C) take responsibility for directing the
session
D) All of the above

Answer 69

C) take responsibility for directing the
session

Question 70

Chapter 9: mental health
Multicultural counseling

Answer 70

Multicultural counselling has received the most attention as a culturally sensitive therapeutic approach. First, MCT sees therapy as both a helping role and a process, where the role of the therapist and repertoire of helping skills are broadened to include teaching, consulting, and advocacy and are tailored to fit the cultural values and life experiences of clients. MCT recognizes that client identities are composed of individual, group, and universal dimensions. It advocates the use of both universal and culture-specific modes of helping strategies. In other words, there are universal features of helping that cut across cultures, but clients also need strategies that incorporate the values, practices, and beliefs of their particular group. -incorporates both individualistic and collectivistic perspectives and strives to balance attention to unique individual characteristics with consideration for the impact of contextual factors on these individuals. This may involve a shift in focus from individual client change to altering systems (e.g., education, employment, government, business, society).

Question 71

Chapter 10: cultural competence
Becoming culturally competent

Answer 71

cultural competence means effectiveness in interacting with people who are different from you. It is the ability to have positive, productive, and enriching experiences with people from different backgrounds.

awareness of your own attitudes and beliefs

Question 72

Chapter 10: cultural competence
How to increase cultural awareness;

Answer 72

education, participation, travelling, curious attitude

Question 73

Learning specific facts about another
cultural group, such as its history and core
cultural values, is part of which area of
cultural competence?
A) Defensive
B) Culturally appropriate interpersonal skills
C) Understanding other worldviews
D) Understanding your own culture

Answer 73

C) Understanding other worldviews

Question 74

Chapter 10: cultural competence
How to learn about own culture

Answer 74

An important part of cultural competence is first increasing your knowledge about your own group. Even something as simple as exploring the food of your culture can be a method for learning about your own group. Another place to start is with your family: interview your parents, grandparents, and other relatives. Ask them to tell you about family stories, traditions, and personalities, and record the interview. Begin working on a family tree. Take classes that focus on Canada. Attend cultural events and celebrations. Read books.

Question 75

Chapter 10: cultural competence
Four F reactions

Answer 75

Our natural human response to a situation that is unfamiliar is to interpret it as a potential threat. This activates the freeze, flee, fight, or fright response. When we interpret a situation as a potential threat, our natural instinct is to first stop and evaluate the situation (freeze). The next reaction is to try to escape the danger (flee). If escape is not possible, we may become aggressive and try to fight off the danger (fight). If none of these strategies works, the next reaction may be to freeze up because we do not know what to do, because we hope we will not be noticed, or because escape is not possible and we are just waiting for the situation to be over (fright). These strategies may work for a zebra being preyed upon by a lion, and they may have also worked for human beings being chased by saber-toothed tigers in the prehistoric era, but when we are talking about relationships between human beings today, these strategies may not be as effective.
The point is, it is natural to feel some stress, tension, or discomfort when we encounter people or situations that are different. It is even natural to feel afraid, to want to escape, to freeze up, or to even become angry and aggressive.