Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
What are 3 characteristics exclusive to mammals?
A
- hair (keratin - alpha keratin)
- mammary glands (also sebaceous / sweat)
- eggs develop in uterus - most with placental attachment
2
Q
Type of sweat gland responsible for evaporative cooling (watery sweat)?
A
eccrine. in many mammals it is used only as a last resort
3
Q
What are the function of apocrine sweat glands?
A
produce lipid rich sweat. proteins, lipids, carbs (sugars), minerals
4
Q
What is coprophagy? and why is it adaptive?
A
where an animal re-ingests it’s own feces. used by hindgut fermenters.
best absorption of simple sugars is in the small intestine which is located after the cecum. so going back and eating their green pellets allows them to gain digested nutrients from their feces
5
Q
What is cellular respiration?
A
- chemical breakdown of carbon based compounds (glucose) to form energy
- process where ATP is formed
- aerobic metabolism
6
Q
What does the term ‘supercool’ imply?
A
an animal is able to prevent their blood from freezing, produce their own antifreeze ‘cryoprotectant’ glucose prevents tissues and cells from freezing
7
Q
Advantages and disadvantages of being an endotherm?
A
A:
- always warm
- can colonize on any place on earth, even the arctic
- constant metabolic functioning (homeostasis)
D:
- have to produce their own body heat, need lots of fuel to stay warm
8
Q
What does extant mean?
A
species currently living on earth, opposite of extinct
9
Q
What does anthropogenic mean?
A
human caused influence.
10
Q
What is genetic inheritance?
A
reproductive processes result in heredity and variation - how evolution thrives
11
Q
Explain the mechanism of evolution, differential survival and reproduction.
A
ex peppered moths of england
2 colour variants
dark found in areas of heavy pollution (decreased lichen on trees)
light found in cleaner countryside forests
moths survive when their coloration matches their surroundings (tree bark)
12
Q
What is ethology?
A
animal behavior
13
Q
What is zoology?
A
the scientific study of animal life
14
Q
Species definition.
A
group of related individuals which can mate and produce viable offspring. smallest distinct grouping
15
Q
What are mammals derived from?
A
from the synapsid lineage of early amniotes
16
Q
Smallest mammal in North America?
A
pygmy shrew size of a nickel. 1200 BPM
17
Q
What is diphyodont dentition?
A
2 sets of teeth. first set is deciduous
18
Q
What is heterodont dentition?
A
differentiated dentition. incisor, canine, molar, premolar
19
Q
What are the 3 structures that make up a tooth?
A
- enamel
- dentine
- cementum
20
Q
What is the hardest substance an animal produces?
A
enamel. only covers tooth up to gum line
21
Q
What is the fastest growing tissue an animal can produce?
A
antlers
22
Q
What is an adaptation of an anteater?
A
no teeth. Tongue is feeding apparatus
23
Q
Which family has 4 upper incisors?
A
lagomorph (rabbits)
24
Q
Which family has 2 upper incisors?
A
rodentia
25
Why do beavers teeth look orange?
iron in their enamel
26
Explain the specialization of beavers incisors?
enamel on anterior portion, dentine is exposed on posterior, no enamel. the dentine wears away faster than the enamel on the front leaving them with a sharp edge at all times
27
What is diastema?
space in-between teeth
28
What is the function of premolars?
shearing and slicing
29
What does bunodont dentition mean?
broad, squarish, top surface covered by enamel. (omnivores)
30
What is 'milk' teeth?
juvenile set
31
What is the function of molars?
grinding and crushing. present only in permanent set of teeth
32
What are selenodont teeth?
molars shaped like half moons. common in herbivores to break up herbaceous matter
33
Deer with long fang teeth instead of antlers?
Musk deer. for mating
34
Remember the difference between order carnivora and carnivore digestive system adaptations.
35
How does a cecum work?
anaerobic bacteria (absence of oxygen) break down cellulose because vertebrates lack cellulase therefor the ability to break down cellulose
36
What is a fore-gut fermenter?
fermentation happens before reaching acid
stomach. Occurs in rumen.
37
What are examples of fore-gut fermenters?
browsers and grazers. artiodactyla. moose, deer, sheep, cattle etc
38
What is a hind-gut fermenter?
fermentation occurs after the true acid stomach. occurs in cecum and large intestine
39
What are examples of hind-gut fermenters?
perrisodactyla (horses, zebra), gnawers and nibblers (rodentia, lagomorpha)
40
What are the ruminant stomach 4 chambers in order?
1. Rumen
2. Reticulum
3. Omasum
4. Abomasum
(Running Rivers Of Alberta)
41
Where is 'cud' formed?
rumen
42
What is cud?
regurgitated food balls
43
What is the main function of the reticulum?
- water absorption
also milk digestion in calves
AKA hardware stomach
44
What is the function of the omasum?
first chamber where real absorption of products begins
includes: water, soluble food & microbial products
45
What is the function of the abomasum?
- like how a human stomach functions
- fats (lipolytic) & proteins (proteolytic) broken down here
46
What is the small intestine lined with and what is it's function?
intestinal papillae (micro villi)
increases surface area dramatically for the absorption of nutrients
47
What are defined as browsers?
selective eaters. forage for higher quality food (plants with more protein)
48
What are defined as grazers?
less selective foragers. eat a large quantity of food to get in enough nutrients
49
Why do browsers have large reticulum & abomasum?
reticulum - because the stems they eat dont have much water
abomasum - because they eat lots of protein
50
Why do grazers have a large rumen and omasum?
so they can fit more of the 'lower quality' food
51
What is a ruminant?
a mammal with 4 chambered stomachs
52
Advantage of being a ruminant?
eat a lot fast, then rest and digest. good digestion of poor quality food
53
Disadvantage to being a ruminant?
very slow process. low protein content
54
What does non-ruminant mean?
does not have a 4 chambered stomach
55
What is a carnivores digestive system like?
shorter, less complex, mostly digest protein
56
What is the integument in the body?
skin
57
What is the epidermis?
thinner outermost layer of skin. can produce keratin - can result in callouses / thickened skin.
protected by hair
58
What is the dermis?
just below epidermis. thick inner layer full of glands, nerves, and blood vessels
59
What is the hypodermis?
fatty layer below the dermis
60
What is a pelage?
fur coat.
underhair: dense soft, insulating
guardhair: coarse, longer, protective
61
What is vibrissae?
whiskers. not found only on face. Ex. ground squirrel on legs
62
What are some specialized hair types?
whiskers (vibrissae), quills, spines
63
What is the latin term for hair raising?
pilo erection
64
What are 4 functions of hair?
protection
sensory
insulation
appearance
65
What are animal adaptations to photoperiod?
shedding hair
shedding antlers
66
What is photoperiod?
decreasing daylight causes an increase in melatonin in body
67
What is the function of eccrine sweat glands?
evaporative cooling. concentrated in hairless regions, footpads
68
What is the sweat like from apocrine sweat glands?
milky/whitish. made up of protein, lipids, sugars, minerals, h2o
69
What are sebaceous glands?
associated with hair follicles
produce sebum, keeps hair shiny
70
What are the function of scent glands?
social communication
reproductive status
marking territories
warning
defense (skunks)
71
What is ATP?
The source of energy for cells
(Adenosine Triphosphate)
72
What are middens?
squirrel food stash under pine cone scales
73
What is colostrum?
first milk, passes on immunity & inoculates young with required bacteria
74
What are mammary glands derived from?
apocrine sweat glands
75
What does cephalic appendages mean?
appendages of the head
76
Which cervidae species where the female also grows antlers?
caribou
77
What are some functions of antlers?
- display / competition
- dissipate excess heat
78
Where do antlers grow from on the skull?
pedicel
79
What is the purpose of velvet on antlers?
provides protection and feeds growth
80
What is an example of a cervid whose antlers do not branch?
spike buck
also young deer
81
What is the fate of antler velvet?
at maturity vessels constrict, velvet dies and rubs of (atrophy)
82
What is basal metabolic rate?
metabolic rate when animal is at rest
83
Who would have a higher metabolic rate, a rat or a cow?
A rat. smaller mammals generally have higher metabolic rates
84
What is the optimal mammalian body temp?
35-38 C
85
Why do small mammals require proportionately more energy than large mammals?
Smaller mammals have a larger surface area to volume ratio. small mammals lose heat more quickly
86
Explain the relationship between surface area and volume.
smaller organisms have more surface area in relation to their body volume that would be able to retain heat. (think of making ice cubes, a smaller amount of water freezes quicker than a large amount - the large amount of water is able to retain heat for longer)
87
Why does a high / constant body temp make a difference?
enzymes - proteins that catalyze biochemical processes. They are a function of temperature. They are temp sensitive, perform best within the 35-38C temp. They denature past a certain hot temp
88
What is an ectotherm?
organisms that gain their heat from their environment
89
What is a thermoneutral zone?
temperature range in which mammals do NOT have to increase metabolism (find food) to maintain body temp. environment is close to body temp
90
What is a microclimate?
small area where climate differs from surrounding area. (hiding from the wind, or in the shade)
91
List a mammal that can supercool?
Arctic ground squirrel. body temp goes to -2.9C
92
How is metabolic heat produced?
produced in all body tissues
oxidation of food / cellular respiration
muscular contractions (heart and other muscles through exercise)
93
What is aerobic metabolism?
using oxygen
94
Which organelle is important for the production of ATP?
mitochondria
- darkest organelle in cell
- traps energy from fuel molecules
95
What is BAT tissue? (brown adipose tissue)
brown fat
- fat that heats up
-packed with mitochondria
-skips production of ATP
- found around kidneys, adrenal glands, hearts, etc other organs
96
What is deamination?
converting amino acids to ammonia
97
What is ammonia (NH3)?
-metabolic waste. what is filtered through the kidneys
- highly toxic
- highly water soluble
98
What is urea?
amphibian and mammals convert ammonia to urea, less toxic form of ammonia
99
What is uric acid?
birds and reptiles convert ammonia to uric acid which is a less toxic form of ammonia
100
How do fish diffuse ammonia?
through their gills
101
What is the "rule" to getting rid of toxins?
the solution to pollution is dilution
102
What are some ways body heat is lost?
- respiration
- convection (fluid related)
- conduction (surface contact)
- thermal radiation (cellular respiration)
103
What are some ways mammals reduce heat loss?
Appendages, size
Insulation; fur, fat
Permit cooling of extremities (counter current heat exchange)
Avoid cold, microclimates
104
What is Bergmann's rule?
Populations (within the same/similar species) with greater bulk or mass are found in colder regions. (ex. polar bear are the largest bears and live in the Arctic, whereas smaller black bears are found in warmer regions because they are smaller)
105
What is Allen's rule?
(Allen - Appendages) length of Appendages or limbs has an effect on level of heat loss. (ex fox ears are longer in warmer areas so they can expel more heat)
106
How does fur insulate?
- traps a layer of dead air next to skin
- most effective method of insulation
107
Which mammal has the most dense fur?
- sea otter (1 mill. hairs/sq. inch, tons of sebaceous glands to secrete sebum which coats the hairs and repels water)
108
Why is fat utilized in some mammals instead of fur?
- wet fur has a high heat loss capacity
- buoyancy
- hydrodynamics
109
What is heterothermy?
different temps in diff body parts
110
What is vasoconstriction?
- constriction of arterioles
- keeps warm blood from perfusing
111
What is counter-current heat exchange? Why is it utilized?
-not every mammal has this
- arterial blood vessels pass close by the veins
- extremity remains cool & internal heat is conserved
112
Do bats migrate?
no most hibernate
113
What is adaptive hypothermia?
- shift in regulation to lower temperatures
- when our bodies become hypothermic they use/need less oxygen
- maintain a critically low body temp
- varies among species
114
What is torpor?
shorter term form of dormancy characterized by:
- body temp 10-22 C
- metabolic rate lowers
- respiration lowers
- heart rate lowers
(all are mutually inclusive, if one drops they all drop)
115
What causes an animal to go into torpor?
- immediate energy saving emergency
- in times of low energy, low food, cold stress
116
What types of animals utilize torpor as an energy saving strategy?
primarily small endotherms (daily torpor) - rodentia, insectivora, chiroptera
117
How do animals know when to go into hibernation?
photoperiod, reduced daily sunlight, thus increase in melatonin
118
What is the largest true hibernator?
marmot (5kg)
119
What is true hibernation?
- profound dormancy, marked Tb decrease
- body temp from 2-5C
- dormancy may not be continuous
- requires fat storage in advance
120
Which mammals utilize true hibernation?
rodentia, insectivora, chiroptera
121
Why is in not possible for a large mammal like a bear to truly hibernate?
- arousal demands too large
- storage capacity
122
How long does it take to return from torpor or hibernation?
1-6 hours
high energy demands
123
What is the process of arousal from hibernation/torpor?
1. BAT warms up muscles/organs so can function (non-shivering)
2. shivering thermogenesis
124
Bears, skunks, beavers, badgers, raccoons all go through a "winter sleep / lethargy" which is different from hibernation because?
body temp remains high around 33C
prolonged period of sleep over winter to avoid activity. from weeks - months
125
What is subnivean lifestyle? (Sub- below, nivean-snow)
- adaptation to cold by living under snow pack (microclimates)
126
Advantages of subnivean lifestyle?
- snow is insulating
- allows some mammals (voles - rodentia) to remain active during winter months
127
Disadvantages of subnivean lifestyle?
- ice formation
- CO2 gas
128
What are some challenges to desert conditions?
- hot / cold temperature extremes in the same day
- scarcity of H2O and vegetation cover
- high evaporation rate (low relative humidity)
129
What is hyperthermia?
- body overheating
- blood thickens, reduction in flow
- cannot cool through vasodilation
130
What % of water are animals?
60-90%
131
What are some physical adaptations to hot environments?
- few or no sweat glands (avoids excessive H2O loss to sweating)
- light colour, reflects solar radiation
- dorsal fat stores (on back) insulate from solar radiation
- insulating fur slows the rate of heat exchange
132
What are some behavioral adaptations to hot environments?
- seek shade
- succulent food
- nocturnal (cooler at night)
- Fossorial (burrow) higher humidity underground
133
What are some biogeographical adaptations to hot environments?
- bergmanns rule - mass / env. temp
- allens rule - appendages / env. temp (thermal window - highly vascular with large surface area, ex jackrabbits ears, elephant ears)
134
What are some physiological adaptations to hot environments?
- concentrated urine
- dry feces
- rely on metabolically produced water
135
What is the countercurrent heat exchange?
-when veins and arteries are close together on limbs
- allows limbs to be chilled while using more of the energy to warm the main part of the body
- cools blood going to the brain
136
What is estivation?
- similar to topor but used in hot or dry conditions instead of cold
137
What is a disadvantage to estivation?
spending too long in estivation could lead to reduced opportunity to gain brown fat for winter hibernation. lowers the chance of winter survival
138
Where do antlers attach?
Pedicel
139
Why is food regurgitated from the rumen?
Has anaerobic (no oxygen) bacteria that begins fermentation. Food passes through the rumen twice
140
What is fertilization?
when an egg and sperm combine to make a zygote
141
What is implantation?
when a zygote implants into uterine lining; followed by pregnancy (gestation)
142
What is gestation period?
length of time from implantation where young develop internally
143
What are the 3 different patterns of mammalian reproduction?
- monotremes
- marsupials
- placentals
144
Explain monotreme reproduction.
- egg laying mammals (oviparous)
- no gestation (no internal development)
ex. platypus (lays eggs in burrow)
145
What does oviparous mean?
egg laying mammal
146
What does viviparous mean?
live born mammal
147
Explain marsupial reproduction.
- pouched viviparous (live born) mammals
- short gestation
- offspring are born in embryonic state, nursed for an extended period within the pouch (lactation period)
- 13 nipples, only 13 will survive, have to remain attached to nipple for 50-60 days, water tight seal
-ex. opossum
148
What is embryonic diapause?
Temporary suspension of development of the embryo
149
What is an ephemeral environment?
- up and down with food availability
150
Explain placental reproduction.
- 94% of mammals reproduce this way
- longer periods of gestation
- young are sustained in uterus by chorioallantoic placenta (unique to mammals)
151
What is the function of the yolk sac?
- source of stem cells
- NOT a source of nutrients
152
What is the function of the allantois?
- holds metabolic waste (urea)
- gas exchange CO2 & O2
153
What is the function of the chorion?
- gas exchange
- forms most of the placenta
154
What is the function of the amnion?
- holds amniotic fluid, encloses the embryo
155
Compare marsupial vs placental reproduction.
marsupial: shorter gestation, longer lactation
placental: longer gestation, shorter lactation
156
What is delayed implantation/embryonic diapause?
- blastocyst remains dormant for weeks/months
- delayed implantation in uterine wall
- mechanism to extend gestation period
- ex bears, seals, weasels, badgers, bats
- tends to be found mostly in northerly latitudes
157
Animals that produce larger litters more often is usually due to?
- animals more prone to predation
158
What is order artiodactyla?
Even toed hoofed mammals
159
What is a chorioallantoic placenta?
Large chorion fused with large allantois
160
Which is known as the hardware stomach?
Reticulum
161
What is the function of the omasum?
- first chamber where real absorption begins (energy kick)
