MIDTERM Flashcards
Define Anthropology and its four fields:
Anthropology: the holistic study of humans in the past, present and throughout the world
1) Archeology: the reconstruction of historic material
2) Biological anthro: Understanding humans through evolutionary roots of our biology
3) Cultural Anthro: focus on contemporary society and their cultures- (focuses more on cultures than society)
4) Linguistic Anthro: focuses on recovering languages of specific cultures
What is ethnography? What is ethnology? Give an example of each type of research.
Ethnography is first hand in depth study of a particular group and its culture, an example of this would be the author of gringo love doing fieldwork in Brazil. Ethnology is the study of a particular topic across various cultures using ethnographic research, an example of this would be looking at how gender roles vary cross-culturally.
What are the main research methods used by people doing ethnographic research?
qualitative research methods such as: participant observation, informal interviews, semi structured interviews, emic/etic research
What is the difference between informal, semi-structured and formal (surveys & questionnaires) interviews?
Formal interviews have pre planned closed ended questions, informal interviews have a topic without set questions, and semi structured interviews have open ended questions.
What are the key features of the anthropological approach to the study of gender?
1) no universal gender
2) stop trying to “save” women
3) culture is dynamic and not bounded
4) dialectic of structures and agency
5) accepting different types of feminism
6) don’t impose western values (including LGBTQ activism)
7) let people speak for themselves
8) Consider context (economic, political, cultural).
What do anthropologists mean by consultants? What role do they play in ethnographic research?
Consultants are members of the group being studied who assist anthropologists with their research by giving an insider emic perspectives.
Note * consultants and collaborators are different*
Collaborators are the one’s making decisions with the researcher and assist by determining what is acceptable to document throughout the research process.
Why did some anthropologists start to question the way people and their cultures were being represented in ethnographic research? What was the solution?
There have been questions of objectivity. Data was presented as fact and was full of bias, and there was no female representation The solution was reflexive ethnography, which focuses on intersubjectivity. It involves reflecting on how you know what you know and analyzing your own positionality.
What are reflexive ethnography and intersubjectivity?
reflexive ethnography is reflecting on how you know what you know and analyzing your own positionality.
Intersubjectivity involves collaboration and shared public knowledge.
» double checking with the individuals who you are studying that you correctly understood what is happening, and refining your understanding until they agree with it completely.
Define and give an examples of gender roles, norms and ideologies.
Gender ideology refers to the collective set of beliefs about the appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of men and women in society.
Gender roles- Gender responsibility/expectations- playing a role as a mother or a father
Gender norms- Things influenced by culture. Expected behaviour- How he or she should act according to their gender.
What is the difference between enculturation and socialization? Can you think of an example that illustrates both processes?
Enculturation is the process of acquiring culture & learning to be a proficient member of society.
Socialization is the learning of norms values & perceptions as well as social roles we are expected to play in life.
Going to school, making and hanging out with friends, and going to church would all be examples that illustrate both of these concepts.
According to Kuakkanen, what is the problem with mainstream feminism?
Mainstream feminism doesn’t take into consideration the importance/aspects of feminism outside of a western view. Mainstream feminism also doesn’t take into consideration intersectionality. Example indigenous feminism ideologies, Black feminism ideologies.
What is the difference between gender identity and gender expression?
Gender Identity- is who one is in terms of gender. It is a persons internal identity of either masculine or feminine or a combination of thereof.
Gender expression- Gender performance= gender expression./ how you express your gender. (Hyper, Fem, androgenous, masculine.
How do those using interactionist theories explain gender norms and roles?
They explain gender as an ongoing process created through interactions with others.
They focus on gender as something we are actively engaged with that is constantly created, contested and recreated.
They explain that gender is formed through interaction and focus on the ongoing process of gender within specific contexts/situations/social roles.
What do interactionist theorists mean by performance? What would be an example of gender performance?
Gender performance is the idea that gender is something inscribed in daily practices, learned and performed based on cultural norms of femininity and masculinity.
What are social institutions?
Social institutions are structures or mechanisms of social order governing the behaviour of individuals such as family, government, education, religion, media, or work.
What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
deductive reasoning) starts with a theory and through that frames a hypothesis. They then observe the behaviour and come to a conclusion (theory > hypothesis >observation > confirmation).
Inductive reasoning starts with an observation then finds a pattern and through that creates a hypothesis and theory. (Observation> pattern> hypothesis> theory).
What is the structure versus agency dichotomy?
Agency is the capacity for individuals to have the power and resources to fulfill their potential.
Structures are the factors of influence such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, ability, customs, etc. that determine or limit agency.
describe the fa’fafine
AMAB (assigned male at birth)- fem expression
Adopt women’s roles- caring for elders & ceremonial tasks
Tension today w/ those who don’t adhere to expected roles
Change to the economy and household structure influential factors such as workforce
Roles held by fa’afafine have changed to be more urban, society questions fa’afafine roles today
Homophobia is an increasing issue due to changes in religious beliefs
Sexually attracted to men, most don’t identify as gay
The third gender is not gender nonconformity, acting within the third gender
describe fa’afatama
AFAB (assigned female at birth)- masc expression
Less recognition and acceptance in contemporary Samoan society
How do those using individual level theories explain gender norms and roles?
Gender norms- Those attitudes that are normal according to your gender. such as body posture, tone of voice, wardrobe.
Gender roles- Roles that we take on according to our gender such as being a mom or a dad.
describe kathoey
AMAB- fem expression
In Thailand
Highly visible (esp beauty pageants) but some stigma (particularly among upper class)
Beauty pageants big part of tourism industry
Traditionally meant intersex
Seen to be pre ordained- not a choice, born kathoey
Acceptance of kathoey exaggerated by western media, they still experience stigma and discrimination
Kothoey cenceptualized as “genuine”(intersex) or “false”(men who dress/act like women and have sex with men)
Class is a factor in people’s perception of kathoey
“Ladyboy” current term used by many urban kathoey
Has had a lot of research compared to other genders,
Looking at gay identities in contrast to kathoey
(hypermasc gay individuals to contrast themselves to kathoey)
describe muxe
AMAB(assigned male at birth)- fem expression
Oaxaca, Mexico
Comes from Zapotec, indigenous culture in Mexico
Often wear traditional dress or contemporary clothing
Often work feminine occupations such as hairdressing or beauty
Traditionally artistic
Help with home and family care traditionally
Many families see muxe child as a blessing ^
Conservative families would not be accepting of muxe
Variation of muxe identity along lines of class, education, and religion
Mothers tend to be more accepting of muxe
Why are femininity and masculinity now pluralized in gender studies?
They are pluralized now as there are so many different femininities and masculinities across different cultures.
describe burrnesha
AFAB(assigned female at birth)- masc expression
Albania
Documentation since the 1800s, well established third gender
Sworn virgins- take a vow to chastity through a religious ceremony
Only accepted if sworn to virginity, breaking this has severe consequence
No bio children but can adopt
Take on men’s roles
cis Men are the only ones to inherit in Albanian culture
Burrnesha are NOT allowed to inherit
Adoption used to acquire a gender that is missing in a family
What is the meaning of transgender? Why do anthropologists think it is important not to assume transgender can be equated with third genders in non-western countries?
The term transgender describes a contemporary gender category that is a gender identity different from assigned gender at birth. The term is Globalizing through LGBTQ activism and is not associated with a specific social or economic roles.
Third genders often have their own role and are not conforming to gender,
transgender individuals would take on the role of the gender they identify as and are still conforming to a gender, therefore the two should not be equated.
What is the contemporary meaning of hijra in India?
Hijra people are a stigmatized third gender in India. Hijras are often interpreted as embodying a multitude of sexual and gender non-normative characteristics.
Hijras are most often male-assigned GNC people who leave their families in their teenage years (usually due to abuse for their gender expression and/or perceived sexuality) and come to live and work with others “like them” in communal living spaces known in Bangalore.
Hijras continue to be disparaged within the “general society” because of their poverty, their supposed
dirtiness, their association with gender and sexual deviance, and their generally marginal status.
sexwork, and begging are often times the only work available to Hijra people
Explain the difference between qualitative and quantitative inquiry
Quantitative research can be represented numerically, whereas Qualitative data cannot. Quantitative is based on survey, polls (concrete data) Qualitative is through fieldwork and observations
What is the meaning of hegemonic masculinity? Why do some scholars prefer to use the term dominant masculinity?
Hegemonic masculinity is defined as a practice that legitimizes men’s dominant position in society and justifies the subordination of the common male population and women, and other marginalized ways of being a man.
Characteristics associated with hegemonic masculinity include strength, competitiveness, assertiveness, confidence, and independence.
As there are a lot of men now beginning to go against the hegemonic masculinity norms and have now created new norms, some scholars prefer to use the term dominant masculinity.
Why are some working class, AMAB people in India embracing transgender identities and rejecting the identity of Hijra?
due to the negative associations to hijra such as sexual deviancy and poverty
How do those using institutional theories explain gender norms and roles? Provide two examples of the role in institutions in the construction of gender
girls section / boys section at a toy shop
girls and boys bathrooms
What is social capital? Cultural capital?
Social capital is the potential of individuals to secure benefits and invent solutions to problems through membership in social networks. Social capital is gained through things such as economic status and racial status.
Cultural capital is the social assets of a person (education, intellect, style of speech, style of dress, etc.) … that promote social mobility in a stratified society.
What is habitus and how is it related to symbolic capital?
habitus refers to engrained habits & dispositions, it is essentially an embodiment of symbolic capital and relates to the social body.
What is the relationship between gender and the body?
gendered meanings are learned and embodied, the body is a vessel to express ones gender.
What do social scientists mean when they say race is a social construction?
there are no biological differences between races, therefore race has been socially constructed because people are radicalized based off of cultural and social meanings.
What are the three bodies?
provide an example for each
Individual body = your body ; lived experience in your body ; sense of self
Social Bodyodyody= body linked with society and culture. bodies are inscribed with social meaning.
e.g. tattoos are inscribed on the body and the meaning behind them [fitting in or standing out of cultural norms]
Body Politics = the surveillance and control of bodies.
e.g. reproduction laws or access to work / healthcare
What is embodiment?
provide an example for embodiment
“the idea that we take into our body, or live through our body”
and
The way that social meaning becomes borne in the body. Most times this embodiment is unconscious and learned through observation of others in society. (mother and father)
… e.g. if there is a difference in class, race, age.. ect then we live those things through our bodies.
e. g. an individual unconsciously learning how to stand, speak, walk in socially relevant ways from their parents
e. g. body dysmorphia = internalized ideas about the body, and how if we don’t fit the cultural ideals then low self worth is felt.
is beauty defined the same across cultures?
- All societies have notions of beauty
but every cultures have ideals for what is considered beautiful (some similarities and some differences).
some similarities include: youthfulness, bigger hips than waist, smooth skin
some of the differences : large bodies, skinny bodies, muscular bodies, tiny wastes, tiny feet, long necks.
all cultures modify the body in some way in the pursuit of Beauty.
Why are beauty ideals important in all cultures?
how is beauty a form of symbolic capital?
beauty is important to cultures because it can be seen as a form of status??????
I think
Symbolic capital = connected to an individuals esteem or status. its based on things like how you speak, your credentials, lived experiences, preferences & tastes that lead to a higher esteem within society.
beauty is a form of symbolic capital because if you are culturally beautiful you may be held in a higher esteem, and have access to more opportunities.
Beauty as symbolic capital:
• Beauty practices can be transformed into social capital.
• Symbolic capital (esteem or status)
• And economic capital (high paying job or promotion)
what is social capital?
what is cultural capital?
social capital = ones connection within society that allows an individual to have more access to resources
cultural capital = based on your esteem or status within a culture. // how you speak, your credentials, lived experiences, ect. reflect your cultural capital…. also do you speak multiple languages, have a masters or bachelors degree. // also about the things that you have learned grown-up in a certain social group.
what is whiteness?
Racialization?
Racialziation = the social construction of race.
- ascribing racial identities
- social, economic, political forces determine the context and importance of racial categories.
- not real biologically, but it is real socially.
Whiteness= a racial category.
- reffers to “a set of normative privileges granted to white-skinned individuals and groups; it is normalized in production/maintenence for those of that group such that its operations are “invisible” to those privileged by it.”
- whiteness then becomes the standard to which other racialized groups are compared.
What is colourism?
what are its origins and how is it connected to skin lightening/ whitening?
colourism = prejudicial or preferential treatment of same race people based on the colour of their skin
colourism was born out of slavery. individuals that had lighter skin were treated less harmfully and given less labour intensive work.
colourism is connected to skin lightening because:
it gives people access to mobility, social capital, improves their chances of getting a job, or meeting someone wealthy (because of the racism embedded in the society).
why is the public health approach to skin lightening problematic
?
blames individual and fails to consider structural practices.
the narrative in public health is strongly geared toward “people should love themselves, love their skin” there is a strong message that all skin is beautiful… and that people should stop harming themselves by lightening their skin..
this is problematic because it reduces skin lightening down to an individual level opposed to understanding that people are lightening their skin due to systemic reasons. (better job, more opportunities).
> > have to stop blaming individuals for lightening their skin.
What are some of the contemporary associations of light skin?
modernity, wealth, power.
What is racial capital?
raising status from existing racial hierarchies
Why are bodies “good to think with”?
- we all share similar bodies
- our bodies differ in easy recognizable ways
- our bodies are malleable
- our bodies are modified for many reasons.
define: holism
Holism = assuming the interrelatedness of the separate parts of the whole. We want to understand how the thing that we are examining connects to the broader spectrum. a Holistic perspective is to have a complex understanding of culture.
define: sex
The biological characteristics that define humans as male, female, or intersex.
Several makers (chromosomes, horomones, primary sex characteristics)
Factors not always consistent
A continuum or spectrum.
Define: Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism: the difference in size between male and females ( on average males are 10 to 15% larger than females) these are just averages.
define: intersex
when a person is born with sex characteristics that doesn’t fit into the box of one specific gender
1.7 percent of our species are intersex
What are the key elements of the anthropological approach? Define each term and explain how
it related to anthropology
- Holism (context) = assuming the interrelatedness of the separate parts of the whole.
- Comparative (ethnology) = the term that is used for cross cultural studies that compare a cultural phenomenon (gender, marriage, politics) is ethnology. Through a comparative approach you can see what are human universals and what Is culturally specific. When we look at things like how humans think, and behave, we have to look at multiple cultures and compare these things. Understand the similarities and differences between societies.
- Dynamism (change) = through evolution our species has changed over thousands of years to have the biological characteristics we have today (2 legs, 2 arms instead of walking on all fours). What changes have occurred within our biology to make this possible.
- Field Work Based = anth is an empirical social science. It is based on observations. All anthropologists no matter the filed do field work. Must go to the site where you are doing your work.
- Qualitative ( Cultural anthropology) = research methods are mostly qualitative.
define: Ethnocentricism
Judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture, rather than by the standards for that particular culture.
Define: Cultural relativism
Cultural relativism: The idea that one must suspend judgement of other people’s practices in order to understand them in their own cultural terms.
Define: field notes
Field notes are written observations recorded during or immediately following participant observations
Define Emic and Etic
Emic comes from insider perspective
Eric comes from outsider perspective
anthropologists Strive for emic perspective when they do research
But realize that there will always be some etic point of view as we haven’t walked in the shoes. In order to translate the research to a broader perspective, etic terms must be used.
e.g. polyamory and monogomy are etic terms.
But there will be a more localized word in each society for each of these terms that applies more fully to that culture.
Define culture and give an example of deep culture
Culture: a set of beliefs, practices, and symbols that are learned and shared. Together, they form an all-encompassing, integrated whole that binds people together and shapes their worldview and life ways.
example of surface culture: food, music, language, festivals,
example of deep culture: beliefs, norms, expectations,
attitudes towards elders, adolescents, work, authority
concepts of: self, time, past and future, fairness and justice.
approaches to: marriage, raising children, problem solving.. ect.
What is an Interactionist Theory?
Focuses on gender as an interaction… gender can be performative. It means that gender is something that we are actively engaged with on a day-to-day basis.
Gender is an ongoing process, created through everyday interactions with other people; gender is a dynamic project and is constantly created, contested, and recreated.
What is an Institutional Theory?
Institutional Theories:
Focus on the role of social institutions in the construction of gender.
aim to discover the social construction of gender.
- how institutions affect gender
Define: Intersectionality:
Intersectionality: the interconnected nature of social categories.
- Creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.
- If we look at sexism, we shouldn’t be looking at it in isolation. We need to understand how this form of discrimination (men or women are uncapable of certain things) often overlaps with other forms of oppression.
Describe the different kinds of gender binary systems
Different and unequal:
- can pervade all aspects of life
- men’s roles are more highly valued
- rigid gender roles (role crossing = loss of status)
- may involve segregation.
- found in some small scale societies, but mostly large scale stratified socieites
- private (domestic, public distinction.. spatially and symbolically there are designated spaces for men and women.
Different but equal:
- men are not ranked more highly than women
- two genders can be viewed as different but complementary
- clear gender roles in household and in fields, but both are valued.
- in some, gender bending and role crossing is frequent
What are the characteristics of a nonbinary gender system?
- have third genders, or noxnbinary genders
- third gender = separate from men or women.. they are often seen as preordained and natural
- these individuals are not breaking cultural norms by acting within their gender/sex norm.
- across cultures there is more emphasis on gender-diverse men than gender diverse women.
- societies with noxnbinary genes systems do not always have gender equality.
Define Social stratification
Social stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social status, or derived power.
Define soft (hegemonic) power
soft power involves persuasion.
persuading individuals to agree with certain ideologies that justify why some people have power and privilege over others.
these ideas are not being exercised with force, violence, or harshness (hard power)
e.g. convincing people to get vaccines with the narrative that they are keeping their neighbours safe is soft power
what is hard power
the use of force, violence, or harshness to achieve an end.
e.g. convincing people to take the vaccine with vaccine passports is an example of hard power.
