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Herpetology > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Herpetology

A

The study of reptiles and amphibians. Herpo is Greek for creeping thing.

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2
Q

Twofold Roots of Herpetology

A

Taxonomy and systematics

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3
Q

Taxonomy

A

Classification in an ordered system indicating natural relationships

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4
Q

Systematics

A

Evolutionary and genetic relationships, phenotypic similarities and differences

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5
Q

2 modern approaches to herpetology

A

Functional and levels of organization

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6
Q

Functional approach to herpetology

A

Genetics, physiology, ecology, behaviour

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7
Q

Levels of organization approach to herpetology

A

Molecular, cellular, organismal, population level, community level

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8
Q

John Ray

A

English botanist and naturalist that grouped reptiles and amphibians based on their heart structure and introduced the morphological species concept

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9
Q

Morphological species concept

A

Grouping animals together based on similarities in appearance

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10
Q

Carolus Linnaeus

A

Swedish naturalist that produced the modern taxonomy system, but he hated herps

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11
Q

What did Linnaeus say about reptiles?

A

Foul and loathsome, heart with a single ventricle and a single auricle, doubtful lungs, double penis

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12
Q

What did Linnaeus say about amphibians?

A

Abhorrent, cold body, pale colour, cartilaginous skeleton, filthy skin fierce aspect, calculating eye, offensive smell, harsh voice, squalid habitation, terrible venom, creator purposely didn’t make many

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13
Q

Georges de Buffon

A

French naturalist/physical scientist that published the journal “Natural History”, in which 8/44 volumes pertained to reptiles

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14
Q

Bernard Lacépède

A

Studied under de Buffon and edited Natural History

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15
Q

Number of amphibian species

A

8000

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16
Q

Number of reptile species

A

10 000

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17
Q

What is included in reptiles?

A

Turtles, lepidosaurs (snakes, lizards, tuatara), and archosaurs (crocs & birds)

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18
Q

What is included in Lissamphibia (amphibians)?

A

Anura (frogs & toads), caudata (salamanders), and gymnophiona (caecilians)

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19
Q

What is included in Diapsida?

A

Lepidosauromorpha (testudines (turtles)) and Archosauromorpha (crocodyla)

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20
Q

What is included in Lepidosauria?

A

Rynchocephalia (tuatara) and Squamata (snakes & lizards)

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21
Q

Synapomorphy

A

Shared traits from a common ancestor

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22
Q

What is similar about reptiles and amphibians?

A

Vertebrate tetrapods

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23
Q

What is different about reptiles and amphibians?

A

Egg structure, skin, land vs water

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24
Q

Anamniotic Egg

A

Fish and amphibian eggs. Yolk sac (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm), embryo, and jelly matrix inside the egg membrane. Must be wet, either in water or in a very damp and moist environment.

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25
Q

Amniotic Egg

A

Reptile, bird, and mammal eggs. Calcified shell that prevents desiccation. There are some live births in which there is still an amniotic sac.

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26
Q

Rhipidistian Fish

A

Historical ancestor of reptiles and amphibians. The skull bone pattern closely matches that of early amphibians. Lobed fins.

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27
Q

Skull Bone Pattern of Rhipidistian Fish

A

Parietal bones with an opening for pineal gland (light sensing organ/3rd eye) and two movable joints - jaw and roof of mouth (to swallow large prey)

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28
Q

Lobed Fins of Rhipidistian Fish

A

Two pairs of fleshy projections with rayed fin at ends that they could kind of walk/move along on

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29
Q

Ichthyostega

A

First tetrapod that best combined fish (ichthy) and amphibian traits. First true amphibian with 4 limbs, 5 toes, and scales.

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30
Q

Pros of Terrestrial Life

A

Oxygen is more abundant and diffuses more rapidly in air, adaptive radiation in terrestrial habitats leads to diversity in body forms

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31
Q

Cons of Terrestrial Life

A

Air is less dense and provides less buoyancy than water so the skeleton must support more weight, air temperature fluctuates more rapidly that water temperature affecting hibernation

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32
Q

Early Tetrapods and Terrestrial Life

A

Amphibians were the first tetrapods to spend a substantial portion of time on land. Early tetrapods had relatively sturdy skeleton-supported legs instead of paired fins, and lived in shallow aquatic habitats.

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33
Q

Greerpeton

A

Last branch before amphibians. Almost entirely aquatic. Lateral line. Used limbs for steering and tail for propulsion.

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34
Q

Plants in the Devonian Period

A

Trees and other large vegetation allowed the transformation of terrestrial ecosystems. Plants at the edges of ponds and swamps deposited organic material into aquatic habitats from terrestrial, allowing new food and living conditions.

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35
Q

Fish in the Devonian Period

A

Resembled modern lobe-finned fishes and lungfishes. Used buccal pumping to breathe air.

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36
Q

Buccal Pumping

A

Used be Devonian fish and modern day frogs. Come to surface, drop floor of mouth to draw in air, raise floor to close mouth and force air into lungs.

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37
Q

Necessary Adaptations for Living on Land

A

More capillaries and arterial blood from last aortic arch to improve air-filled cavity. Double circulation formed by oxygenated blood returning directly to heart by pulmonary vein. Bony elements of fins of lobe-finned fishes resemble limbs of amphibians.

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38
Q

Fossils of Acanthostega

A

Bony support of gills, basic skeletal elements as walking legs

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39
Q

The Age of Amphibians

A

The Carboniferous period when the earliest terrestrial tetrapods/amphibians benefitted from abundant food and relatively little competition. But the amphibians did begin to decline in number and diversity during the late Carboniferous period.

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40
Q

Maintenance of Adaptations for Life in Water During Carboniferous Period

A

Flattened bodies for moving in aquatic medium, weaker legs and a well developed tail (early salamanders), webbing on hind limbs for better swimming (anurans)

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41
Q

Permian Period

A

Amniotes became dominant land animals. Gymnosperms took over. Climate change resulted in the loss of 75% of species. Most surviving lineages of amphibians resembled modern species.

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42
Q

Causes of Mass Extinction at End of Permian Period

A

Loss of continental shelf habitat, volcanism (Siberian Traps), climate change

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43
Q

What went extinct at the end of the Permian period?

A

75% of terrestrial vertebrate species (considered to be the Earth’s most severe extinction event), 21 (63%) of terrestrial tetrapod species, 7 orders of insects (only extinction known to include insects), many marine taxa (especially benthic communities)

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44
Q

Extinct Groups of Ambhibians

A

Temnospondyls and Lepospondyls

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45
Q

Temnospondyls

A

Extinct amphibians, 5 m long, lived in polar rift valleys where it was too cold for primary predators (crocodiles), basically looked like a salamander-frog-crocodile

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46
Q

Lepospondyls

A

Extinct amphibians, boomerang shaped skull was hydrofoil for lift to move through water, theory that they had to tilt their heads back because it was too big for them to open their jaws, got too dry for them to survive

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47
Q

General Life Cycle of Amphibians

A

Small eggs need wet conditions, not much yolk so they need to feed themselves and grow (larval stage), amazing metamorphosis from gills to lungs

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48
Q

Order Caudata

A

Salamanders, tailed ones

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49
Q

Order Caudata

A

Salamanders, tailed ones. 2 or 4 legs, smooth skin.

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50
Q

Order Anura

A

Frogs and toads, tailless ones. Short tailless bodies, long hindlegs to launch and forelimbs for landing, sticky tongues to catch prey.

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51
Q

Traditional Phylogeny of Amphibians

A

Morphological characters, 2 groups are Anura/Caudata and Gymnophiona. Usually 4 limbs, opercular apparatus in middle ear, absence of scales, and green rods in Anura and Caudata. Highly reduced skull in Gymnophiona.

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52
Q

Recent Phylogeny of Amphibians

A

Morphological and molecular characters, 2 groups are Anura and Caudata/Gymnophiona. Absence of limbs in gymnophionans is secondary, absence of limbs precludes operculum, reduced development of eyes and fossorial lifestyle preclude need for green rods.

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53
Q

Recent Phylogeny of Amphibians

A

Morphological and molecular characters, 2 groups are Anura and Caudata/Gymnophiona. Absence of limbs in gymnophionans is secondary, absence of limbs precludes operculum, reduced development of eyes and fossorial lifestyle preclude need for green rods.

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54
Q

Families in Order Gymnophiona

A

Caecilidae, Ichthyophiidae, Typhlonectidae

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55
Q

Caecilians

A

Order Gymnophiona. Legless and nearly blind, small heads, adapted for burrowing as they live underground in moist soils near water. Terrestrial, semi, and aquatic species. Resemble earth worms with grooves.

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56
Q

Family Caecilidae

A

Caecilians. No true tails, burrowers, ossified skulls adapted for burrowing

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57
Q

Family Ichthyophiidae

A

Caecilians. Asian, tailed, ovaparous, maternal care

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58
Q

Family Typhlonectidae

A

Water caecilians. Large, viviparous, lateral compression that gives fishy shape

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59
Q

Variation in Life History of Order Caudata

A

Either entirely aquatic, aquatic eggs/larvae and terrestrial adults, or entirely terrestrial

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60
Q

Body and Movement of Salamanders on Land

A

Distinct heads with well developed tails and legs. Legs are small for the body (indicative of older species), so they kind of swagger with a side to side bending of the body, like early terrestrial tetrapods.

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61
Q

Families in Order Caudata

A

Sirenidae, Proteidae, Amphiumidae, Cryptobranchidae, Ambystomidae, Salamandridae, Plethodontidae

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62
Q

Family Sirenidae

A

No metamorphosis, external gills, small forelimbs and no hindlimbs. Very long and skinny. Look juvenile for whole life.

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63
Q

Family Proteidae

A

Totally aquatic, retain external gills, large body size, robust forelimbs and hindlimbs. Some are cave dwellers and live in deep waters so they have depigmented skin and degenerate eyes.

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64
Q

Family Amphiumidae

A

Totally aquatic, no gills, 4 tiny limbs, up to 1 m long

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65
Q

Family Cryptobranchidae

A

Giant salamanders & hell-benders. Flat heads, big enough to eat baby deer, males guard eggs and fight for them. Need fast-flowing, clear, crisp water to breathe.

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66
Q

Family Ambystomatidae

A

Mole salamanders. Stout with small heads, large parotid glands, facultative metamorphosis. Spend most of adult life underground.

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67
Q

Family Salamandridae

A

Newts & old world salamanders. Adults have no gills but are usually highly aquatic. Lack costal grooves, may be slender or robust.

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68
Q

Salamandridae Reproduction

A

Male deposits spermatophore and female walks over and picks it up with cloaca. Vivaparous, internal reproduction without sex.

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69
Q

Family Plethodontidae

A

Lungless. Eggs can be terrestrial, larvae in streams or sphagnum bogs. May be totally aquatic.

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70
Q

Anura Adaptations to Avoid Predation

A

Camouflage, distasteful or poisonous mucous secreted from skin glands, bright aposematic colours

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71
Q

Suborders of Anura

A

Archeobatrachia, Mesobatrachia, Neobatrachia (advanced frogs & toads)

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72
Q

Families of Suborder Archobatrachia

A

Ascaphidae, Bombinatoridae, Discoglossidae

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73
Q

Family Ascaphidae

A

Internal fertilization by intermittent organ (“tail”). Vertical pupils (weird for frogs), no tympana, clawed forefeet and webbed hindfeet, sucker to help hold onto rocks. Ancient. Live in turbulent streams and indicate mountain stream health.

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74
Q

Family Bombinatoridae

A

Fire-bellied toads. Behavioural defence called unken reflex (back blends in but they flip over and show their bright bellies).

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75
Q

Family Discoglossidae

A

Burrow. Male carries fertilized eggs on his back and deposits larvae into water.

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76
Q

Families of Suborder Mesobatrachia

A

Megophryidae, Rhinophrynidae, Pipidae

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77
Q

Family Megophryidae

A

Asian toad frogs. Mimic dead leaves

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78
Q

Family Rhinophrynidae

A

Burrowing toad. One fossorial species that only comes to the surface for breeding. Spade-like edge of foot for digging, thick skin, dorsal stripe, use tongue differently to catch termites (termite specialists)

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79
Q

Family Pipidae

A

Highly aquatic, no tongue (no use for a tongue in water), lateral line, polyploid, widely used in research

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80
Q

Families of Suborder Neobatrachia

A

Leptodactylidae, Centrolenidae, Ranidae, Bufonidae, Hylidae, Dendrobatidae

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81
Q

Leptodactylidae

A

Pacman frogs and big head frogs. Big mouth, fang-like upper teeth, capture and consume large prey (lizards, other frogs, small mammals), big heads and little bodies.

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82
Q

Centrolenidae

A

Glass frogs. Breed on leaves. Threatened by parasitoidism by flies. Parental care by males (lay eggs on leaves above water, male stays with them until they hatch, they drop into water below.

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83
Q

Ranidae

A

True frogs. Forelimbs and thumb bases become enlarged during breeding season.

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84
Q

Bufonidae

A

True toads. More terrestrial than frogs. Prominent parotid glands, no teeth, bidder’s organ (gonadal tissue in males that looks like testes but turns into ovaries if something happens to the testes), poison glands that ooze white goo (not warts)

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85
Q

Hylidae

A

Treefrogs. Sticky toe pads to hold onto trees.

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86
Q

Subfamilies of Family Hylidae

A

Hemiphractinae (marsupial frogs that hold their eggs inside their skin) and Phyllomedusinae (leaf frogs, poster child of the tree frogs)

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87
Q

Dendrobatidae

A

Poisonous (most poisonous get alkaloid poison from ant diets). Complex paternal care (male carries tadpoles from hatching place to permanent water).

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88
Q

Early Amniotes

A

Small, slender, lizard-like, 20 cm long. Skull and tooth morphology suggest insectivorous diet. Oldest are Hylonomus and Paleothyris.

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89
Q

Who are amniotes?

A

Mammals, birds, and reptiles

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90
Q

Characteristics of Amniotes

A

Waterproof skin, increased use of rib cage to ventilate lungs, amniotic egg

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91
Q

Oldest Amniote vs Oldest Amniotic Egg

A

90 million year difference because the eggs weren’t mineralized enough to fossilize

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92
Q

Amniotic Egg Extraembryonic Membranes

A

Gas exchange, waste storage, transfer of stored nutrients to embryo, fluid shock-absorber. Develop from tissue layers that grow out from embryo.

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93
Q

Adaptations of Animals Inside Amniotic Egg

A

Egg tooth/horny caruncle to break out. Yolk provides nutrients and allows the animal to skip the larval stage.

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94
Q

Mesozoic Radiation of Amniotes

A

Were more widespread/numerous/diverse than today, dominated terrestrial vertebrates for 200+ MY (10-15 m, bigger than T rex)

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95
Q

Two Great Waves of Amniote Radiation

A

Early Permian period (3 evolutionary branches based on skull fenestration) and late Triassic Period (dinosaurs on land and flying pterosaurs)

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96
Q

Sarcosuchus

A

Giant prehistoric (112 MYA) reptile. One of the largest (11-12 m) crocodile-like reptiles that ever lived.

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97
Q

Amniote Skull Fenestration

A

Holes in the skull, probably for jaw muscles. Synapsids, anapsids, and diapsids.

98
Q

Synapsids

A

Only lower hole in skull. Mammal-like reptiles and therapsids from which mammals evolved.

99
Q

Anapsids

A

No skull holes. Probably extinct but debate on position of turtles.

100
Q

Diapsids

A

Upper and lower hole in skull. If turtles are included, all modern reptiles and some extinct swimming, flying, and land reptiles.

101
Q

Euryapsids

A

Only upper hole in skull. Extinct water reptiles.

102
Q

Turtle Skull Fenestration

A

Anapsid, but not always. A secondary loss back to anapsid from first change to dyapsid. The oldest skull bone configuration is different from the original anapsid ancestor.

103
Q

Evolutionary Branches of Diapsids

A

Archosauromorpha (crocs, birds, and their extinct relatives) and Lepidosauromorpha (lizards, snakes, Sphenodon, and their extinct relatives)

104
Q

Archosauria

A

Crocs, birds, and their extinct relatives. Most diverse in the warm Mesozoic era.

105
Q

Dinosaurs

A

Extremely diverse group (varying shapes, sizes, and habitats), agile, fast-moving, good parents, social in some species

106
Q

Groups of Dinosaurs

A

Ornithischians (mostly herbivorous) and Saurischians (long-necked herbivores and carnivores, including the ancestor of birds)

107
Q

Parental Care in Dinosaurs

A

Nested, protected eggs, and protected children (like crocs)

108
Q

Are dinosaurs ectotherms or endotherms?

A

Anatomy suggests endotherms but the mesozoic climate and surface area to volume ratio suggest ectotherms

109
Q

Dinosaur Extinction

A

End of the Cretaceous period but some species may have survived into the early Cenozoic era. Asteroid, climate change, other theories.

110
Q

Orders of Class Reptilia

A

Crocodilia, Testudines, Rhynchocephalia, Squamata

111
Q

Order Crocodilia

A

Crocodiles and alligators. Among the largest living reptiles. Closer to birds and mammals than to other reptiles. Spend most time in water and breathe air through upturned nostrils. Confined to tropics and subtropics. Functionally successful because they haven’t really evolved further.

112
Q

Order Testudines

A

Turtles and tortoises

113
Q

Order Testudines

A

Turtles and tortoises. Evolved in Mesozoic era and have changed little. Few synapomorphies with other animals. Hard shell protects against predators. Returned to water during their evolution but still crawl ashore to lay eggs. Mostly omnivorous but some specialists.

114
Q

Order Squamata

A

Lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians. Monophyletic with lots (50) synapomorphies. Specialized wrist and ankle joints, fused premaxillary, no vomerine teeth, vomeronasal organ hemipenes in males and femoral and prenatal glands in females.

115
Q

How Reptilian Heritage Differs from Amphibians

A

Scales containing keratin to waterproof the skin and prevent desiccation in dry air. Respiration only with lungs, not through skin. Lay amniotic shells on land.

116
Q

How does turtle breathing differ from other reptiles?

A

They use moist vascularized surfaces of the cloaca for gas exchange

117
Q

Crocodilia Eggs and Parental Care

A

Oviparous with internal fertilization. Lay eggs in a mound of vegetation (like an island) and stays to guard them. Mama may help open shells to free babies and carries them to the water. Mama knows her babies’ calls (like birds).

118
Q

Families of Order Crocodilia

A

Crocodylidae Alligatoridae, Gavialidae

119
Q

Family Crocodylidae

A

Largest confirmed reptiles. Temperature-dependent sex determination. Freshwater, tropics (some saltwater species).

120
Q

Family Alligatoridae

A

Alligatorinae and Caimaninae.

121
Q

Crocodiles vs Alligators

A

Alligators are smaller and cuter. Croc teeth stick out while mouth is closed but alligator teeth don’t.

122
Q

Family Gavialidae

A

1 species. True Gharial. Ghara (pot) on tip of male’s snout. One of the largest croc species. Critically threatened. Males guard females.

123
Q

Tomistoma

A

Potentially part of family Gavialidae but more research is needed, controversy over taxonomy. False Gharial. Freshwater. No nest guarding or parental care.

124
Q

Tuatara

A

Slow metabolism. 100+ or maybe even 200 year longevity, mature at 10-15 years, female needs 2-3 years to develop a clutch of eggs and the eggs need a year (longest gestation of all reptiles and maybe even mammals), egg incubation. No penis. Pineal eye. Dino dentition. Cold tolerance (different hemoglobin enzymes work at lower temperatures). No external ear holes so not a lizard.

125
Q

Tuatara

A

Slow metabolism. 100+ or maybe even 200 year longevity, mature at 10-15 years, female needs 2-3 years to develop a clutch of eggs and the eggs need a year (longest gestation of all reptiles and maybe even mammals), egg incubation. No penis. Pineal eye. Dino dentition. Cold tolerance (different hemoglobin enzymes work at lower temperatures). No external ear holes so not a lizard.

126
Q

Evolution of the Turtle Shell

A

Plastron (lower shell) and carapace (upper shell). Oldest turtle fossil had a fully developed shell but early carapaces were not ossified enough to be fossilized. Shell is an expanding of the ribs to form wide plates.

127
Q

Turtle Necks

A

2 clades based on neck movement/retraction - side to side (slide head in side) or pull the head back into the shell. Neck is extremely flexible

128
Q

Cryptodira

A

Hidden neck/pull head in turtles. More common.

129
Q

Pleurodira

A

Side-neck turtles. Less common.

130
Q

Pleurodira Families

A

Chelidae, Pelomedusidae & Podocnemidae

131
Q

Family Chelidae

A

Side-neck turtles. Highly aquatic, aestivation during dry periods (dormancy during drought or high summer temp).

132
Q

Families Pelomedusidae & Podocnemidae

A

River turtles with streamlined shells. Bottom walkers in slow moving water. Feed on benthics and aquatic plants.

133
Q

Cryptodira Families

A

Cheloniidae & Dermochelyidae, Chelydridae & Platysternidae, Carettochelidae, Trionychidae, Kinosternidae, Emydidae, Testunidae,

134
Q

Families Cheloniidae & Dermochelyidae

A

Sea turtles. Flippers, streamlined shells, front limbs stronger than back limbs. Specialist feeders on jellyfish and sponges. Among oldest turtles evolutionarily. Spend years in water and then lay many eggs on land.

135
Q

Families Chelydridae & Platysternidae

A

Snapping turtles and big headed turtles. Long tails (longest of all turtles). Opportunistic omnivores. Use tongues as a fishing lure to catch prey. Bioaccumulate toxins and change the environment. Hunted for food and persecuted.

136
Q

Persecution of Snapping Turtles

A

Eaten. Nailed to trees to die slowly. Run over. Eggs are killed. Extra bad to lose adults in long-living species. Now a species of concern but used to be allowed to hunt with a fishing licence.

137
Q

Family Carettochelidae

A

Only freshwater turtle with paddle-like limbs. 1 species, the pig nose turtle (a v cute boy).

138
Q

Family Trionychidae

A

Softshell turtles. Reduced and “naked” carapace and plastron. Flattened pancake turtle with leathery skin covering. Long necks. Snorkel-like noses to breathe while in mud underwater.

139
Q

Family Kinosternidae

A

Mud turtles and musk turtles. Forage and mate underwater, some species hibernate on land, some babies even dig down and hibernate underground in their first winter.

140
Q

Family Emydidae

A

Pond turtles, cooters, sliders, American box turtles. Sexual dimorphism, female may be 10x bigger than male.

141
Q

Family Testunidae

A

Tortoises. High-domed shell, elephantine limbs. Terrestrial in semi-arid habitats. Herbivorous. Live a couple hundred years with 18 month gestation. A lot of morphological differences as present on many different islands of the Galapagos.

142
Q

Lizards

A

Most numerous and diverse reptiles. Many legless forms (limblessness has evolved 60 times). Mostly relatively small. Insectivorous. Nest in crevices and decrease activity during cold periods, enabling survival through the Cretaceous crunch.

143
Q

Lizard Groups

A

Iguanidae, subfamily Phrynosomatinae, Chamaeleonidae, Gekkonidae, (suborder) Amphisbaenia, Lacertidae & Teiidae, Scincidae, Varanidae

144
Q

Family Iguanidae

A

Dry adapted lizards. Mostly terrestrial and mostly herbivorous.

145
Q

Subfamily Phrynosomatinae

A

Fence lizards. Xeric (dry & arid) habitat. Social. Rock Paper Scissors reproductive strategy that maintains colour morphology.

146
Q

Family Chamaeleonidae

A

Chameleons. Zygodactylous feet (mitten hands) to hold on, independently mobile eyes, prehensile tails (basically 5th leg), laterally compressed bodies, crest for head and neck protection, projectile tongue.

147
Q

Family Gekkonidae

A

Geckos. Millions of microscopic hairs (setae) on bottom of feet that function as a dry adhesive (electrostatic sticky) and can even stick to glass), caudal anatomy, well developed limbs, tiny scales that make them feel soft, very different toes. Nocturnal, arboreal and pantropic, insectivorous (big ones sometimes eat smaller ones).

148
Q

(Suborder) Amphisbaenia

A

Worm lizards. Poorly understood. Scales in rings, usually legless (some have forelimbs), caudal anatomy, right lung reduced, many are pinkish colour, small (15 cm), look like primitive snakes. Burrowers (not common among lizards) with variable head morphology for differential burrowing, but head is stout like tail end and can move backwards and forwards. Some live births.

149
Q

Families Lacertidae & Teiidae

A

Wall and rock lizards and whiptail lizards (ecological equivalents)

150
Q

Family Scincidae

A

Skinks. Worldwide distribution.

151
Q

Family Varanidae

A

Monitor lizards. Active predators. Tropics. Long, robust, muscular, long head, some small and some huge, very strong, fast, poisonous/venomous (lunge bacteria in saliva).

152
Q

Caudal Anatomy

A

Can drop tail (it still wiggles for a bit) and it grows back, but never as perfectly as the original

153
Q

Snakes

A

Descendants of lizards adapted for burrowing through loss of limbs (no pectoral girdle but some primitive ones have vestigial pelvic girdle). Everywhere except Antarctica, more aquatic than lizards so on more islands.

154
Q

Snake Fangs

A

No fangs, rear fangs, fixed front fang, movable front fang (folds back in when mouth closes)

155
Q

Evolutionary History of Snakes

A

Living sister group appears to be Varanids because of the forked tongues. Extinct Mosasaurs may be the closest relatives to modern snakes because they swam sideways like snakes (not up and down like whales).

156
Q

Snake Suborders and Families

A

Scolecophidians (Anomalepididae). Alethinophidians (Boidae, Pythonidae, Colubridae, Viperidae, Elapidae). There was a deep split early on but there is a lot of debate over these 2 groups.

157
Q

Family Anomalepididae

A

Blind snakes. Recessed and reduced eyes. Vestigial pelvis, absence of large ventral scales and no annelid (ring) pattern. Fossorial specialists (live under forest floor and in termite mounds and ant hills, poisonous too then).

158
Q

Family Boidae

A

Boas. Constrictors. Infrared receptors in pits, cloacal spurs. Viviparous. Heaviest snake.

159
Q

Family Pythonidae

A

Pythons. Constrictors. Infrared receptors. Oviparous. Cloacal spurs. Arboreal or aquatic.

160
Q

Family Colubridae

A

Colubridae, Homalopsinae, Xenodontinae. Highly diverse group with confusing evolutionary relationships

161
Q

Family Viperidae

A

Vipers and pit-vipers. Most advanced snakes with thermoreception (heat-seeking pits) and rotating fangs (like a hypodermic syringe). Bites, poisons, lets go, tracks dead.

162
Q

Family Elapidae

A

All venomous with fixed fangs (holds prey), petroglyphous (primitive) without infrared receptors.

163
Q

Biggest Snake Ever

A

Titanoboa. 58-60 MYA in South America. 13 m long and over 1100 kg. Ectotherm this big needed a consistent 33 degree climate for metabolism.

164
Q

Groups of Elapidae

A

Elapinae and Hydrophiinae

165
Q

Elapinae

A

Predominantly terrestrial and semi-fossorial or litter foragers, mostly oviparous

166
Q

Hydrophiinae

A

Sea snakes. Most toxic snakes. Eat fish. So highly adapted to water that they can’t move on land so viviparous (can’t come to land to lay eggs). Laterally compressed and tail fans out like fin. Smaller scales.

167
Q

Gametogenesis & Fertilization

A

The production of gametes. Internal fertilization, in the oviduct in reptiles and in the cloaca in amphibians. Ultimately controlled by the environment.

168
Q

When is the shell produced in reptiles?

A

The last step before oviposit because the sperm has to get in.

169
Q

When is the shell produced in amphibians?

A

Enveloped get deposited around the egg in layers throughout the entire process and the number of capsules depends on species.

170
Q

Aquatic vs Terrestrial Eggs

A

Aquatic amphibian eggs are an amniotic because they lack extraembryonic membranes. Terrestrial reptile eggs are amniotic with 4 extraembryonic membranes.

171
Q

Extraembryonic Membranes

A

Allantois (fluid), amnion (shock absorber), chorion (selective membrane), yolk sac (food)

172
Q

Egg Shell

A

Ovum is coated with albumin and several layers of protein fibers. Fiber layer is impregnated with calcite crystals in crocs and squamates and with aragonite crystals in turtles. These fibres make the hard shell structure.

173
Q

Fertilization

A

When a spermatozoon and and ovum unite to form a diploid zygote. Only one sperm fertilizes the egg and then there’s a separation to prevent more from getting through.

174
Q

Polyspermatic Fertilization

A

In salamanders. More than one sperm gets through o the egg but only one merges with the nucleus of the egg.

175
Q

Courtship in Anurans

A

Each species has a different song

176
Q

Courtship in Lizards

A

Colours and dances, puff up body

177
Q

Courtship in Sand Lizards

A

Head rubbing

178
Q

Amplexus

A

Male lines up his cloaca with female’s and fertilizes the eggs as they come out. Most frogs and hellbenders.

179
Q

Spermatophore Fertilization in Cloaca

A

Male produces spermatophore with stalk, base, and pile of sperm. H leaves it on the substrate in water and attracts the female to come pick it up with her cloaca. Salamanders other than hellbenders.

180
Q

Oviparous

A

Egg-laying. All embryo nutrition comes from yolk of egg.

181
Q

Viviparous

A

Live birth. Embryo nutrition provided entirely by yolk, by oviductal secretions, or by a complex placenta.

182
Q

Why do amphibians have a larval stage?

A

For more nutrition because there is not much in the yolk.

183
Q

Vivaparous Modes of Reproduction

A

Lecithotrphy, Matrotrophy, Patrotrophy

184
Q

Lecithotrphy

A

Provision of all nutrients necessary for hatching/birth from yolk of egg

185
Q

Matrotrophy

A

Provision of at least some nutrients by mother. Some babies chew on the inners of mom.

186
Q

Patrotrophy

A

Provision of at least some nutrients by father

187
Q

Amphibian Reproduction

A

External fertilization, oviparity

188
Q

Caecilians Reproduction

A

All internal fertilization, more than half viviparous (in oviduct), maternal nutrition, oviparous lay on land and may redirect development or larval stage in water

189
Q

Maternal Nutrition of Caecilians

A

Fuelled by yolk but fetus switches to the oviducal lining on the wall of the mother’s oviduct. They have special teeth to scrape it off.

190
Q

Salamander Reproduction

A

Hellbenders and giant salamanders have external fertilization, but all others have internal by spermatophore. None have intromittent organs. Most are oviparous but there are 4 viviparous species.

191
Q

Anuran Reproduction

A

Mode of reproduction categorized by placement of eggs for development. Eggs may be deposited in aquatic habitats, in arboreal or terrestrial habitats, or retained in or on the body.

192
Q

Maternal Care in Anurans

A

May guard eggs (may be in or on body) or lay them high up in trees to prevent predation, oophagy, gastric brooding

193
Q

Oophagy of Anurans

A

Some Hylid frog mamas come back and lay unfertilized eggs for her larvae to eat

194
Q

Gastric Brooding in Anurans

A

Female deposits aquatic eggs and then swallows them after fertilization so they develop in her stomach, and then baby frogs come out of her mouth. Only about half of the eggs survive, so the first half could be what triggers inhibition of acid.

195
Q

Foam Nests

A

Leptodactylid frogs construct foam nests to create a 100% humidity environment for the eggs. If it dries up, the tadpoles can rub on each other to create more foam.

196
Q

Anuran Egg Guarding (not on body)

A

Male guards eggs until they hatch, puts the baby tadpoles on his back, and hops them over to the water.

197
Q

Anuran Egg Guarding (on body)

A

Pipa Pipa male presses eggs from female’s cloaca onto her back and she embeds them into her skin. The tadpoles later come out of her back. Marsupial frog females guard the eggs and the male comes back after they hatch and pushes them into his back and he keeps living his life with them on his back until little frogs hop out.

198
Q

How do tadpoles get to the water when Anurans lay on land?

A

Parental transport, foam nests, or lay on leaves above water and they drop to the water below when they hatch. Some have direct development so there is no larval stage in need of water.

199
Q

Reptile Reproduction

A

Only about 20% of lizards and snakes are viviparous and rest of reptiles are oviparous.

200
Q

Pros of Reptiles Evolving Viviparity

A

Temperature control and predation control

201
Q

Cons of Reptiles Evolving Viviparity

A

Mom’s mobility is limited by the extra weight and bulk making her more susceptible to predation. If she gets eaten, all the babies are gone too.

202
Q

Viviparity in Reptiles vs Amphibians

A

Rarer in amphibians as they do not require high developmental temperatures so there is no thermal advantage. Direct development and egg attendance in amphibians are equally successful as squamate viviparity.

203
Q

Evolution of Viviparity in Squamates

A

Primary reason is for temperature regulation. Females can maintain body temperature to maintain egg temperature. Development is more rapid at higher temperatures and neonate survival is higher.

204
Q

How do pythons keep eggs warm?

A

Wrap around eggs and twitch/shiver

205
Q

Why is sex costly?

A

Only half the genes are transferred in meiosis, not every individual can reproduce (males vs asexual females), time and energy put into mating and defending

206
Q

Benefits of Sex

A

Purge mutations from the lineage, break up bad combinations, put good combinations back together

207
Q

Sexual Reproduction

A

Male and female contribute genetic material to offspring

208
Q

Types of Unisexual Reproduction

A

Hybridogenesis, gynogenesis, kleptogenesis, parthenogenesis

209
Q

Hybridogenesis

A

Hybridization between two closely related species. Female mates with male of parental species and only female offspring are produced, all containing genome of mother, and male genome is not included.

210
Q

Gynogenesis

A

Egg begins development after penetration by sperm but no fusion of genetic material

211
Q

Gynogenesis Hybrids

A

Blue spotted salamander (Ambystoma laterale) and Jefferson’s salamander (A. jeffersonianum) hybridize, resulting in triploid females JJL (A. platineum) or JLL (A. tremblayi). These females then go back and mate with the parent species again, not the triploids.

212
Q

Kleptogenesis

A

All unisexual populations share the same mtDNA and local unisexuals steal nuclear genomes from sexual males of 4 species. The females breed in ponds with male sperm donors and pick up the spermatophore.

213
Q

Results of Kleptogenesis

A

Egg development is triggered and male genome kicked out (gynogenesis), male genome added to offspring & all female genomes retained (ploidy increase), male genome added & one of female genomes kicked out (genome replacement), or some combo of these

214
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

Females reproduce without males at all. Clonal, all female offspring genetically identical to mother.

215
Q

How is ovulation triggered in parthogenesis?

A

Pseudocopulation. A postovulatory females acts like a male and attempts to mate with the preovulatory female. The act of mating triggers a hormonal response that produces the egg.

216
Q

Parental Care

A

Any form of post-ovipositional parental behaviour that increases survival of offspring at some expense of the parent. Most herps do not show any parental care beyond nest construction.

217
Q

Categories of Parental Care in Herps

A

Nest/ egg attendance, nest/egg guarding, egg/larval/hatchling transport, egg brooding, feeding of young, guarding/attending young

218
Q

Nest/Egg Attendance in Amphibians

A

Aquatic egg aeration, terrestrial egg hydration, protection from pathogens and predators, manipulation to prevent developmental adhesions. No actual defence.

219
Q

Nest/Egg Attendance in Reptiles

A

Hydration of eggs, prevent drowning of eggs, deter fungal infection, aid in keeping eggs hidden. No actual defence.

220
Q

Nest/Egg Guarding

A

Active defense

221
Q

Egg Brooding

A

Retaining eggs or babies for a longer period than just transport

222
Q

Trophic Eggs

A

Feeding eggs for oophage

223
Q

Parental Care in Amphibians vs Reptiles

A

More terrestrial = bigger offspring = more parental care in amphibians (bigger offspring = less offspring = need to protect young). Parental care in reptiles is associated with egg protection from predators or fungi and keeps egg warm.

224
Q

Parental Care Cost to Parent

A

Decrease future survival or reduced feeding time and decreased investment into more offspring, but benefits outweigh the costs.

225
Q

Life History

A

Traits associated with fitness and survival. Including clutch size and frequency, size of young at birth/hatch, age and size at maturity and death, modes of reproduction.

226
Q

Early Reproduction

A

Fast growth rate, early maturity, reduced survival because all of energy is going to growth, limited potential for further reproduction. No parental care. r species

227
Q

Late Reproduction

A

Slower growth rate, later maturity but could die before reproduction, increased survival, decreasing fecundity after each reproductive event. Parental care. K species

228
Q

K Strategists/K-Selected Species

A

Slow life history. Constant environments allow populations to grow to carrying capacity. Results in high competitive abilities. Reptiles.

229
Q

r Strategists/r-Selected Species

A

Fast life history. Unpredictable adult mortality in unpredictable environments, so populations rarely grow to carrying capacity. Rapid reproduction. Amphibians.

230
Q

Bet-hedging Species

A

Predictable environments for adults but unpredictable for eggs/babies so adults invest a little bit of energy into babies every year in hopes that one will pay off. Turtles.

231
Q

Phenotypic Plasticity

A

Different life history responses to different situations. Individual can alter physiology, morphology, and behaviour in response to a change in environmental conditions.

232
Q

Reaction Norms & Plasticity

A

Small slope = insensitive/not very plastic. Steep slope = sensitive/very plastic

233
Q

K/r Strategists & Seasonality

A

Seasonal/temperate areas are unpredictable so these species are usually r. Tropical areas with little change are predictable so these species are usually K.

234
Q

Croc Life History

A

Late maturation, extended fertile period, long-lived. Clutch size varies from 6-60 eggs.

235
Q

Turtle Life History

A

Late maturation, extended fertile period, long-lived. Clutch size varies from 1-100 eggs.

236
Q

Anuran Life HIstory

A

Males sing to attract females but also attract predators, so they have more males to tackle this loss in the population

237
Q

3 Patterns of TSD

A

Cool chicks, hot mamas, and high/low females & intermediate males

238
Q

Pivotal/Threshold Temperature

A

Incubation temp when equal number of males and females

239
Q

Mechanism of TSD

A

Aromatase for females and 5a-reductase for males. Genes that code for these are turned on or off depending on temperature.

240
Q

Implications of TSD

A

Saving turtle eggs and made all females without knowing about TSD. Dino TSD could have caused demise.

241
Q

Reproductive Effort

A

Total energy spent on 1 reproductive episode. Energy invested by female (parental care and getting her body ready) and energy put into producing the offspring.

242
Q

Clutch Size vs Offspring Size

A

More babies = smaller babies. Less babies = bigger babies. Bigger body = bigger babies. Optimal fixed clutch size that evens out size and number of kids with the costs.

Herpetology (3 decks)

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