midterm 1 (week 1-5) Flashcards
sociological imagination
thinking about and seeing the context that shapes your individual experience in relation to social environment and forces influencing us
how did the industrial revolution and growth of cities influence the development of sociology?
- technological improvements
- huge economic changes
- mass production of goods
- purchased things and relied on others to provide goods
- people moved
- cities grew
division of labor
specialization, trading of surplus, depending on each other while having more to trade as a community
karl marx
- founder of socialism or communism
- witnessed industrial revolution and its sociological changes
- all societies are based on social conflict
- economic perspective -> conflict over possession and trading of goods and resources
- workers own their labor and capitalists exploit them with low wages for personal gain and make them compete
social conflict
groups with different interests and needs struggle and clash
relational sociology
individuals are defined by relationships with others and social institutions like the economy rather than their actual characteristics and properties
alienation
core problem with capitalism includes workers being disconnected from others (capitalist competition), from work, and from their sense of humanity
Émile Durkheim
- sociology as a science
- emergence of capitalism and its structural properties that explain social life
- studied society as a whole, emphasizing how people in a society were connected; solidarity
structure
forces are influencing individual behavior and behavior creates those forces
solidarity
the patterns of the connections between people in society
mechanical solidarity
- older, simpler societies
- intricate connection
- cohesive working unit
- people feel essential and purposeful
- fragile, can easily fall apart
organic solidarity
- more complex society
- more distant connection but more intense reliance on each other
- ex: US
- resilient, less reliant on others
- sense of uselessness
integration
how tied you are to others
regulation
all groups have rules and norms
anomie
too little regulation -> unclear moral standards or social expectations
Max Weber
- social structures; exterior forces strongly influence us
- methodological individualism
- sociology as a science looking at social action
- sociologists understand interpretively; must understand subjective meaning of actions
- subjective meanings behind emergence of capitalism
- cultural approach
methodological individualism
must focus on the individual to make sense of the world
social action
behaviors that produce structures
culture
values held by people and used to guide social actions
Jane Addams
- founder of field of social work
- activist and sociologist
- founded Hull House- center for social reform to educate and support women and their children and to have them engage in social activism
socially-engaged scholarship
people being helped were part of research practice; engaging and learning from people rather than studying them
WEB Du Bois
- african american sociology prof
- social reformer and activist
- a founder for the NAACP
- studied relationship between slavery and capitalism
- slavery was a global system that impacted all workers, white ones too; white people accepted low wages bc of the unpaid labor that was slavery. they supported the myth of racial superiority
- psychological wages
status
relative social standing
psychological wages
- web dubois
- what white workers receive in a system of white supremacy
- white people accepted the low wages that slavery was a factor for them getting (unpaid labor) bc they supported the myth of racial superiority and they work in a racial system
method
a study design that allows us to systematically investigate the world and be relatively certain that we arrive at accurate conclusions
confirmation bias
the tendency we all have to look for and accept information that reinforces what we already believe
audit study
research experiment in which researchers match participants on key characteristics; isolating the variable studied
human subjects
research on people
Nuremberg Code
- result of outrage at Nazi medical experiments
- outline basic ethical principles for research on people
- voluntary consent
-avoid unnecessary physical and mental suffering/injury - degree of risk must be justified by benefit of research
- subjects may revoke consent
- if discovered to be a serious risk to human subjects, project must be ended
- voluntary consent
Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
- subjects were poor black men in rural alabama
- never told the men they had syphilis even though penicillin was available
- studied how symptoms of syphilis developed over time if left untreated
informed consent
all human subjects must be informed about research project including risks, before agreeing to participate
quantitative data
come in the form of numbers and reflect quantities or amounts
qualitative data
are not numbers and reflect general themes
experiment
a research method in which characteristics or behavior are carefully controlled, so that the impacts of one characteristic that changes are isolated
surveys
sets of questions that subjects answer
- cheap, easy, quick
- low response rates
- wording issues
participant observation
researcher spends time among a group, directly observing and participating in that social world
- collect a lot of extremely detailed info about social life in a particular group
- time consuming and expensive
historical analysis and content analysis
analyzing existing sources to find key themes
- helps us observe recurring themes
- you are stuck with the data that exists, possibly limited info
designing a research project
- choose a research question
- state your hypothesis
- gather data
- analyze your data
- use the results of your analysis to come to conclusions about what you found
research questions
- must have more than one possible answer or outcome
- identify the answer that seems more accurate through the study
unit of analysis
what you actually want to observe; not always people, maybe organizations
variable
factor or characteristic that has more than one possible value
covariation
relationships between variables
independent variable
the cause, stands alone and is not affected by other variables
hypothesis
a statement about how variables relate to one another. you must define the population you’re interested in studying and variables you think are important
population
who you want to know things about
operationalization
how we convert an idea into something concrete that we can measure
sampling
how social scientists select representatives of their population; in both quantitative and qualitative
ethnography
in depth qualitative study of a social group and the group’s culture
sampling frame
how you determine who will be contacted to be part of your sample
random sample
each member of population must:
- must be known
- must have some chance of being selected
to get a sample that is truly representative of the larger population so that you can generalize your conclusions to a population
non random sample
some members of the population don’t have any chance of being selected; more common in qualitative work
nonresponse bias
if people do not respond to your attempt to include them in your research
correlation
two variables are related in some way
causation
evidence that the independent variables caused the change in the dependent variable
direction of the relationship
which variable affects the other
causal relationship
one where causation exists; can be proven through research design, by using experiments
spurious relationship
when it looks like there is a connection between two variables, but in reality some other variable we have not considered is affecting both our independent and dependent variables
validity
make sure you are measuring what you mean to be
social desirability bias
tendency for subjects to give answers that they think are socially acceptable
reliability of our observations
the consistency of the measurements
social structure
the boundaries people confront as they make decisions about their individual and collective actions
- rules and resources that guide our behavior
- limits choices people can make but also enables some to have choices that others may not have
resources
things we may have or that we acquire, which are valuable and allow us to accomplish goals
ex: money, education, status, race, gender, religion, nationality, ability, age
social statuses
a person or group’s socially determined positions within a larger group or society
achieved status
results at least in part from your efforts
ascribed status
assigned to you by society without regard for your unique talents, efforts, or characteristics
social hierarchies
ascribed statuses place people in these ranking systems
life chances
opportunities to provide yourself with material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life experiences
social role
a set of expectations about the behavior and attitudes of people who occupy a particular social status
role conflict
inconsistency between two or more of the roles we fill
social group
consists of two or more people with similar values and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis
norms
the rules and expectations by which a group guides the behavior of its members; influences our social interactions based on the group’s norms
social network
a series of social relationships that links a person directly to other individuals and indirectly to even more people
social institutions
enduring practices and rules (both formal and informal) that organize a central domain of social life
agency
our ability to act given the structural rules and resources that impact our behaviors
socialization
the experiences that give us an identity and teach us the values, morals, beliefs, and ways of acting and thinking that are expected in our society
generalized other
values and norms of the larger culture
looking-glass self
the way our perception of how others see us affects our sense of self
agents of socialization
the individuals, groups, organizations, and institutions that influence your sense of self and help you learn how to be a member of society
resocialization
when social expectations shift and we encounter a new set of group rules that guide our behavior, this is the process of adopting new social norms and identities
total institutions
where groups of people are largely cut off from the wider society and their lives are largely controlled by the institution
micro-sociology
focuses on individual identities and small scale interactions with others
macro sociology
takes aim at large scale societal structures, including groups and institutions as well as social forces such as norms
symbolic interaction
studies human interaction by focusing on the words and gestures that people use and the meanings they create about the world
structure of opportunity
the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities across society, which shapes the choices individuals make
reflexivity
the process of evaluating our position in the social world, the rules we are expected to follow, and the resources we have or can acquire
stratification
a system that puts categories of people into a hierarchy
- common foundations for stratification include religion, gender, wealth, and race
social class
a group of individuals who share a similar economic position based on income, wealth, education, and occupation
income
the total amount of money someone earns each year
- social class is mostly defined by income
wealth
the total amount of money that a person has or could have if they sold off all their assets
Dennis Gilbert’s model of class structure
- relies primarily on income, occupation, and education
1. privileged classes
a. capitalist class
b. upper-middle class
i. working rich
2. majority classes
a. middle class
b. working class
3. lower classes
a. working poor
4. underclass
capitalist class
- makes money from the things they own: businesses, real estate, stocks, bonds
- may work but do not gain tremendous wealth from their annual salary
- their wealth brings them a continual stream of lucrative profits
upper middle class
- well educated people relying on high incomes from jobs
- business managers, doctors, lawyers, accountants, business owners
working rich
- subcategory at the top of the upper middle class
- working rich rely on their salaries to maintain their class position
- 6 figures
middle class
- likely have a high school diploma and some college experience
- teachers, nurses, master craftspeople, lower level managers
working class
- completed high school or a trade school
- office support, retail sales workers, low paid craftspeople
working poor
- employed in insecure and low wage jobs, ex: service industries
- not many benefits, so more likely to face financial insecurity and instability
- unpredictable and inflexible work schedules
underclass
- part time workers, unemployed, inconsistent and unreliable work opportunities
- rely on public assistance benefits
social mobility
moving from an ascribed social class position to a new achieved social position
upward mobility
when someone moves from a lower social class position to a higher one
downward mobility
dropping into a lower social class
cumulative advantages
built up benefits and resources
racial wealth gap
the difference in accumulated wealth between different races and ethnicities
meritocracy
a system where personal responsibility and individual effort are the sole determinants of success
GINI index
used to compare inequality, looking at how family income is distributed by country
- total equality would be 0, if everyone had same income
- total inequality would be 1, if one person had all of the country’s income
absolute poverty
people without the basic necessities of life such as food, shelter, and clothing
poverty threshold/poverty line
the US census bureau uses poverty thresholds to estimate the number of americans in poverty each year. this is the minimum income level that the federal govt says is required to buy the basic necessities of life
relative poverty
this measure takes into account the relative economic status of people in a society by looking at how income is distributed
factors and characteristics for being poor in the US
household type, education, paid work, disability status, race, region, high-poverty neighborhoods, child poverty
working poor
people who spent at least 27 weeks in the labor force but whose incomes still fell below the official poverty level
homeless
if someone lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence
point in time count
establishes the homeless population in the US
sheltered homeless
people staying in emergency shelters, transitional housing programs, or safe havens
unsheltered homelessness
their primary nighttime residence is a public or private place not designated for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping space, such as the streets vehicles, or parks
chronic homelessness
someone (often with a disability) who has either been continuously homeless for a year or more or has experienced at least four episodes of homelessness in the past three years where the combined length of the homelessness episodes is at least 12 months
culture
everything we make and consume
material culture
physical goods, often placed in an economic system
symbolic culture
beliefs, values, language
collective representation
a set of images and words that can represent a particular culture
high culture
cultural goods made for and enjoyed by elite groups
popular culture
heavily produced and commercialized goods made for and consumed by a large audience
values
moral beliefs
norms
rules and expectations by which a group guides the behavior of its members
code switching
adopting a set of informal rules and manners that are appropriate in a specific setting
cultural toolkit
sets of beliefs, values, and attitudes, that we learn to use in different situations
culture industries
the vast system of people and organizations that is required for the mass production of cultural goods
corporate consolidation
the acquisition of smaller corporations by larger ones
diversity capital
the practice of corporations supporting cultural institutions in order to improve their reputations and imply they value racial diversity
branding indigeneity
corporations doing things like investing in the national museum of the american indian in order to appear to support indigenous peoples
conspicuous consumption
gaining prestige by exhibiting valuable cultural goods, which implies to others that you are wealthy
subculture
a group that holds values and engages in activities that separate members from the wider society
cultural capital
non economic resources (knowledge, skills, behaviors) that are useful in a particular sphere of social life
fields
context/social sphere where a kind of cultural capital is exchanged, like a profession, a community, or class of people
habitus
our learned dispositions, a set of tendencies organizing how we see the world and act within it
status
the social designation of honor
status group
a collection of people who share similar characteristics that a community has given a certain level of prestige
symbolic boundaries
the way people separate each other into groups; traditions, styles, tastes, classifications
boundary work
creating and maintaining symbolic boundaries to limit group membership and access to resources
cultural omnivores
people who differentiate themselves by knowing a lot about many cultural spheres
globalization
when intercultural communication and the exchange of ideas and values reaches such an international scale, integrating political and economic systems
rationalization
increased efficiency, predictability, and control
cultural imperialism
imposition of a dominant group’s material and symbolic goods
cultural appropriation
when members of a dominant culture adopt the cultural goods (symbols, skills, expressions, intellectual property) of other groups for profit
culture jamming
the practice of raising awareness around issues of mcdonaldization, corporate consolidation, and cultural imperialism through informal and often illegal guerilla marketing campaigns
global commodity chain
the international production, distribution, and marketing system of corporations, laborers, and consumers
deviance
behavior that violates social norms
folkways
the least serious norms; customs traditions, and etiquette. not severe punishments for violating them
mores
more seriously protected norms that reflect a deeper sense of morals and values; social sanctions for violating them are often much stronger
laws
represent the most highly codified level of norm
social control
the way societies try to influence members’ behavior to maintain social order
moral panics
over heated, short lived periods of intense social concern over an issue
moral entrepreneurs
push for increased awareness of a concern over an issue during a moral panic
stigma
occurs when some characteristic of an individual or group is seen as inferior or undesirable and leads to social rejection
labeling theory
deviance is not about the act itself, but is negotiated socially through reactions to the act
functionalist theories of deviance
begin with the idea that deviance serves a social purpose, a function
social cohesion
the degree to which we identify with and maintain social rules and connections
normative
accepted and expected
anomie
a situation in which we do not have clear morals or social expectations to guide our behavior
strain theory
stress results from anomie, the mismatch of goals and means, which may lead some to adapt by engaging in deviant behavior → strain
Merton’s 5 modes of adaptation
- conformity
- innovation
- ritualism
- retreatism
- rebellion
conformity (Merton’s 5 modes of adaptation)
when individuals accept both the socially approved goals and have the means to achieve them, so they can follow norms
innovation (Merton’s 5 modes of adaptation)
someone shares socially approved values and goals but rejects the means to achieve them
ritualism (Merton’s 5 modes of adaptation)
people follow socially approved means to success, but reject the goals
retreatism (Merton’s 5 modes of adaptation)
rejects both the socially prescribed goals and the normative means to achieve those goals
rebellion (Merton’s 5 modes of adaptation)
rejecting both social goals and means but trying to disrupt the system instead of retreating
opportunity theory
some people (ex those living in poverty in highly populated cities) may be more likely than others to be exposed to deviant subcultures
illegitimate opportunity
provided by the deviant subculture’s proximity and norms of delinquency in order to take on the role of deviant
conflict theories of deviance
ask how rules and norms are shaped by power relations in a society
worldview
set of shared values, beliefs, and understandings about how the world should be
ideology
set of beliefs, values, and assumptions we use to understand the world, about what constitutes deviance and what doesn’t
hegemony
a particular type of domination in which the powerful get the consent or support of everyone else
edwin sutherland’s theory of differential association
suggests that deviance is a learned behavior, just like any other. learned from social networks
control theory
focuses on how ties to mainstream social groups and societal institutions make us less likely to become deviant
criminology
the study of crime and criminal behavior; from this perspective, crime exists because criminals have something wrong with them
crime
an act that violates the penal code
penal code
the written laws that govern behavior in a particular jurisdiction
violent crime
murder, robbery, assault, sexual assault, rape
property crime
theft that is not carried out through force; motor vehicle theft, burglary of a home
street crime
violent crimes and property crimes that are more common in public spaces and often involve the police
white collar crime
crimes like fraud, embezzlement, and other unethical acts or business practices that are typically not carried out on the street or in public spaces and do not use physical force
criminal
a person who has violated a criminal law
social network
a group of people (organizations, nations, etc) that are linked to each other in a specific way
social bonds
connections and attachments to people and institutions which often serve as a pathway leading us away from a life of criminal activity
crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED)
urban planners and architects can limit dark, isolated, or unsupervised spaces where potential criminals might seek out victims in order to reduce crime
broken window theory
- theory of policing that argues that small signs of disorder lead to outbreaks of more serious crimes
- if police respond to very small violations of public order, they will make major crimes less likely
homicide rate
the most common measure of violence in a society. measures the number of murders for every 100,000 residents
culture of violence
the idea that the US has a unique heritage in which settlers had to resort to violence to protect their property and themselves, creating a longstanding norm of violent behavior
relative deprivation
a feeling of falling behind while other people do better and better. Merton argued that this feeling creates strain, leading to crime
mass incarceration
the expansion of imprisonment to a level that is not matched elsewhere in the world or at any previous point in US history, particularly for specific demographic groups
“defund the police”
the slogan of a movement to shift resources from police budgets to other agencies that provide services, like jobs programs or mental health treatment, to residents of a city
black lives matter
movement devoted to, among other things, reducing police violence against african americans
the new jim crow
a book written by michelle alexander arguing that mass incarceration represents the latest in a series of institutions and policies designed to reinforce a racialized caste system in the US
collective conscience
common faith or set of norms by which a society and its members abide
social realignment
according to Durkheim - occurred differently depending on the type of solidarity holding a society together (mech or organic)
