Midterm 1 Review Flashcards
Mentalism
Believed the brain cooled the blood & had no role in producing behaviour, This view championed by Aristotle
Dualism
This idea was championed by René Descartes
He believed that both a nonmaterial mind & the material body contribute to behaviour
Mind regulates behaviour by directions the flow of ventricular fluid to the muscles via the pineal gland
Materialism
Supported by the evolutionary theories of Alfred Wallace and Charles Darwin
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection, Survival of the fittest
Behaviour can be fully explained by the workings of the NS, w/o explanatory recourse to an immaterial mind
Psyche
Synonym for mind; an entity once proposed to be the source of human behaviour
Mind-body problem
How can a nonmaterial mind interact with a material body?
Behavioural neuroscience
Study of the biological basis of behaviour in humans and other animals
Between-subjects
control group (do not receive manipulation) vs experimental group (receive manipulation)
Within-subjects
baseline (before manipulation) vs response (after manipulation)
Correlations
look at how 2 variables change in relation to each other
Somatic interventions
manipulate the body and look at the effects on behaviour
Behavioural interventions
manipulate behaviour/experience and look for effects on the body/brain
Epigenetics
examines the differences in gene expression related to environment and experience
Stains
bind to specific proteins to localize them for different types of cells (based on proteins) or for full cells (ex. Golgi)
Assays
bind to specific proteins to allow for measurement (not location)
Microdialysis
determine what proteins are present in a given brain region
Microelectrodes for measuring
can record the activity of a single cell
Cerebral voltammetry
measure changes in specific proteins in a given brain region
Tract tracing
injecting certain chemicals allows for the “mapping” of connections between cells/nuclei/structures
Anatomical imaging
Computed tomography (CT)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
Functional imaging
Functional MRI (fMRI) Positron emission tomography (PET)
Measuring electrical activity
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Optogenetics
Using protein channels sensitive to light to turn on or shut off activity
Chemogenetics
Using protein channels sensitive to designer drugs to turn on or shut off activity
Microelectrodes for stimulating
can manipulate a cell by stimulating it
Lesions
remove part of the brain to determine what it is involved in based on what changes
Stimulation
Activate multiple cells:
- With microelectrodes
- With deep brain stimulation (DBS)
- With transcranial stimulation (TMS)
Drugs
injecting into a specific region can affect how that region functions
Ipsilateral vs Contralateral
same side vs opposite side
Proximal vs Distal
near the trunk/midline vs far; toward end of limb
Dorsal vs Ventral
above, top vs below, bottom
Medial vs Lateral
midline, inward from vs side, outward from
Anterior vs Posterior
front, forwards of vs back, behind
Afferent vs Efferent
Afferent - sensory info arriving at CNS
Efferent - motor info exiting CNS
Planes of the brain
Coronal / Frontal
Horizontal / Transverse
Sagittal
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
- Main Function: Transmitting information
- Cranial nerves by the brain
- Spinal nerves by the spinal cord segments
- Sensory input, motor control, modulation of sensation and facial movement
Afferent functions
Sensory input from eyes, ears, mouth and nose
Efferent functions
Motor control of the facial muscles, tongue and eyes
Both afferent and efferent functions
Modulation of sensation and movement in the face
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Sympathetic (fight or flight) vs Parasympathetic (rest & digest)
Enteric nervous system (ENS)
- Controls digestion, bowel motility, blood flow, etc.
- ENS sends info to the brain and can influence the mental state (Stress, Anxiety)
Law of Bell and Magendie
Dorsal fibres are afferent
–> They carry information from the body’s sensory receptors
Ventral fibres are efferent
–> They carry information from the spinal cord to muscles
Dermatomes
The segments of our bodies (dermatomes) correspond to segments of the spinal cord
Each dermatome has a sensory nerve and a motor nerve associated with it
The meninges
Three layers of protective tissue (dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater)
Dura mater
The tough outer layer of fibrous tissue
Arachnoid mater
A thin sheet of delicate connective tissue
Pia mater
The moderately tough inner layer that clings to the brain’s surface
The subarachnoid space
The space just below the Arachnoid layer that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
made up of salts (sodium, potassium, etc.) in a solution
Buoyancy (CSF)
helps to keep the brain “afloat”; the weight of the unsuspended brain would damage the neurons on the ventral surface
Protection (CSF)
protects the brain from injury (to a certain extent)
Chemical stability (CSF)
removes waste products associated with metabolic activity
Prevention of ischemia (low blood flow) (CSF)
controls blood pressure in the brain
Ventricles
Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) - 4 ventricles (two Lateral)
Major Arteries for Cerebrum
- Anterior cerebral artery
- Middle cerebral artery
- Posterior cerebral artery
Grey Matter
Neuron cell bodies
Glial cells
White Matter
Fibres/axons
Tracts
Several axons together within the CNS
Nerves
Several axons together outside the CNS
Concussion
mild traumatic brain injury (TBI)
Coup vs Countercoup
We call damage at the site of impact the coup
Damage opposite to the site of impact is called the countercoup
Ischemic stroke
block blood vessel; more common; less severe
Hemorrhagic stroke
burst blood vessel; more severe; fortunately less common
Stroke Symptoms
Weakness on the contralateral side of the body Slowed behaviour Short-term memory problems Vision problems Loss of coordination and balance
Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA)
Breaks down the clot causing the stroke
Constraint-induced movement therapy
Stroke patients experience learned non-use of the affected limbs
Constraint-induced therapy binds the intact limb, forcing the patient to use the affected limb
Corpus Callosum
Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain
Brain Stem
- The hindbrain
- cerebellum
- reticular formation
- medulla
- pons
- The midbrain
- inferior colliculus
- tectum
- superior colliculus
- tagmentum
- The diencephalon
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
Forebrain
-Mediates behaviour Cerebral cortex Subcortical structures Basal ganglia Limbic system
Cerebellum
Control of complex movements
Size varies as a function of the physical speed and dexterity of a species
-hindbrain
Reticular formation
Responsible for stimulating the forebrain, arousal, sleep/wake behaviour
-hindbrain
Medulla
Controls breathing (this is why a blow to the base of the skull can be extremely dangerous) -Hindbrain
Pons
Receives input from the cerebellum and transmits it to the rest of the brain
-Hindbrain
Midbrain
- Tectum (roof, located dorsally)
- Superior colliculus receives input from the optic nerve (vision)
- Inferior colliculus receives input from auditory pathways
- Tegmentum (floor, located ventrally) - Nuclei responsible for movement
Diencephalon
Thalamus and Hypothalamus
Top of the brainstem, responsible for integrating sensory and motor information on its way to the cortex
Thalamus
Sensory information is input to the thalamus and relayed to the appropriate areas in the cortex
-Part of Diencephalon
Hypothalamus
Controls hormone production via interaction with the pituitary gland (the master gland)
–Part of Diencephalon
Basal Ganglia
Controls and coordinates voluntary movement
Forebrain
Limbic System
Involved in memory, spatial navigation (hippocampus), emotion, and motivation (amygdala)
- Part of Forebrain
- cingulate cortex
Amygdala
Emotional memory and processing
Forebrain - limbic system
Hippocampus
Spatial navigation
Episodic memory
Forebrain - limbic system
Neocortex
Cerebral Cortex
The stuff you can see from the outside of the brain
Unique to mammals
Sensory input (afferent) Layer 4 Information integration Layers 1-3 Output (efferent) info Layer 5-6
Allocortex
Cerebral Cortex
Outside of the brain towards the bottom
also found in birds and reptiles
Principles of the Nervous System
Brain systems are organized hierarchically and in parallel
Made up of subsystems and parallel pathways that can process info independently
Brain functions are localized and distributed
Brain regions are involved in specific functions but the control of function may be distributed throughout that region
The nervous system works by juxtaposing excitation and inhibition
For a behaviour to occur, some neurons need to be activated while others need to be inactivated/silenced
Many brain circuits are crossed
Left hemisphere receives info from and controls movement of right side of body and vice versa
Neuroplasticity is the hallmark of nervous system functioning
Experience changes the brain
Semi-permeable Cell Membrane
Phospholipids
only select substances can pass through the membrane
Nucleus
Blueprints for protein production are kept (genes)
genes
segments of DNA that encode the synthesis of particular proteins
Primary structure
length of amino acid chains
Secondary structure
polypeptide chains tend to twist and pleat
Tertiary structure
these structures tend to fold…
Quaternary structure
may combine with other proteins to form more complex proteins still
Transcription
Early phase of protein synthesis in which the DNA strands unwind and a complementary strand of messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid) is created
Translation
Later phase of protein synthesis in which the messenger RNA (mRNA) travels from nucleus to the Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum
structure just outside the nucleus that contains ribosomes
Ribosomes
protein structures that act as catalysts for protein synthesis
mRNA is translated by the ribosome into a particular sequence of amino acids to form a protein
Codon
Sequence of 3 bases on mRNA that codes for a particular amino acid
Golgi Bodies
Package proteins in membranes (vesicles) and give them a “label” indicating where they are to go
Microtubules
Transport the vesicles to where they need to go (within the cell or outs)
Glial Cells
Support cells within the nervous system Holding neurons in place Supply nutrients to neurons Act as insulation around axons - myelin Remove pathogens and dead neurons
Ependymal Cells
Small, ovoid cells, found in the walls of the ventricles
Make and secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Astrocytes
Responsible for providing structural support for neurons
Transports substances between neurons and capillaries
Scar tissue formation, sealing of the damaged area, promoting healing
Dilate blood vessels to provide more blood
Blood-brain barrier
Protective barrier formed by astrocytes in combination with blood vessels
Prevents toxins, etc. from entering the brain
Also prevents useful substances from getting through
Microglia
Originate in the blood as offshoot of the immune system
After damage, microglia invade the area providing growth factors and cleaning up the mess
The removal of debris occurs through phagocytosis
Oligodendroglia
Glial cell in the central nervous system that myelinates axons
Myelin: the glial coating that surrounds axons, providing insulation
Schwann cells
Glial cells in the peripheral nervous system that myelinates axons
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
Central nervous system disorder that results from the loss of myelin around axons
Autoimmune disease
illness resulting from an abnormal immune response by the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body
Camillo Golgi
Believed that the nervous system is composed of a network of interconnected fibers: a “nerve net”
Golgi-Stain
infiltrates the entire cell (in a subset of cells) to show the anatomy of the cell
Santiago Ramon y Cajal
Believed that the nervous system is made of discrete cells
“Neuron Hypothesis” – neurons are the units of brain function
