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Final Review Flashcards

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1
Q

Sound wave

A

Undulating displacement of molecules caused by changing pressure

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2
Q

Frequency

A

Number of cycles that a wave completes in a given amount of time
Measured in hertz (Hz), or cycles per second
Corresponds to our perception of pitch
Low pitch, low frequency (fewer cycles/second)
High pitch, high frequency (many cycles/second)
Differences in frequency are heard as differences in pitch

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3
Q

Amplitude

A

The intensity, or loudness, of a sound, usually measured in decibels (dB)
The magnitude of change in air molecule density
Corresponds to our perception of loudness
Soft sound, low amplitude
Loud sound, high amplitude

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4
Q

Complexity

A

Pure tones - Sounds with a single frequency
Complex tones - Sounds with a mixture of frequencies
Fundamental frequency - The rate at which the complex waveform pattern repeats
Overtones - Set of higher frequency sound waves that vibrate at whole number (integer) multiples of the fundamental frequency

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5
Q

Hearing for Humans

A
  • 20 to 20,000 Hz (young adults)

- Prolonged exposure to sounds louder than 100 decibels is likely to damage human hearing

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6
Q

Auditory System

A

Ear collects sound waves from surrounding air
Converts mechanical energy to electrochemical neural energy
Routed through the brainstem to the auditory cortex

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7
Q

Outer Ear

A

Pinna
External ear canal
Tympanic membrane

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8
Q

Pinna

A

Funnel-like external structure designed to catch sound waves in the surrounding environment and deflect them into the ear canal

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9
Q

External ear canal

A

Amplifies sound waves somewhat and directs them to the eardrum

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10
Q

Tympanic membrane

A

Aka ear drum
Vibrates based on frequency of sound waves
Connects to middle ear

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11
Q

Middle Ear

A

Air-filled chamber that comprises the ossicles
Ossicles - Bones in the middle ear - Hammer (Malleus), Anvil (Incus), Stirrup (Stapes)
Connects the eardrum to the oval window of the cochlea, located in the inner ear

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12
Q

Inner Ear

A 
Cochlea 
Organ of Corti
Basilar membrane
Hair cells
Tectorial membrane
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13
Q

Cochlea

A

Fluid-filled inner ear structure that contains the auditory receptor cells

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14
Q

Organ of Corti

A

Receptor cells and the cells that support them

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15
Q

Basilar membrane

A

Receptor surface in the cochlea that transduces sound waves to neural activity

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16
Q

Hair cells

A

Sensory neurons in the cochlea tipped by cilia
When stimulated by waves in the cochlear fluid, outer hair cells generate graded potentials in inner hair cells, which act as the auditory receptor cells

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17
Q

Tectorial membrane

A

Membrane overlying hair cells

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18
Q

Auditory Receptors

A

Transduction of sound waves to neural activity takes place in the hair cells
(3500 inner hair cells (auditory receptors)
12,000 outer hair cells (alter stiffness of tectorial membrane))

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19
Q

Broca’s area

A

Anterior speech area in the left hemisphere that functions with the motor cortex to produce the movements needed for speaking

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20
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Posterior speech area at the rear of the left temporal lobe that regulates language comprehension
Also called the posterior speech zone

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21
Q

Aphasia

A

Inability to speak or comprehend language despite having normal comprehension or intact vocal mechanisms

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22
Q

Mapping by brain stimulation

A
  • Auditory cortex: patients often reported hearing various sounds (e.g., ringing that sounded like a doorbell, a buzzing noise, birds chirping)
  • A1: produced simple tones (e.g., ringing sounds)
  • Wernicke’s area: apt to cause some interpretation of a sound (e.g., buzzing sound to a familiar source such as a cricket)
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23
Q

Disrupting speech

A

Supplementary speech area on the dorsal surface of the frontal lobes stopped ongoing speech completely (speech arrest)

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24
Q

Eliciting speech

A

Stimulation of the facial areas in the motor cortex and the somatosensory cortex produces some vocalization related to movements of the mouth and tongue

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25
Q

Using fMRI

A

Simple auditory stimulation, such as bursts of noise, analyzed by area A1
More complex auditory stimulation, such as speech syllables, analyzed in adjacent secondary auditory areas

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26
Q

Lateralization

A

Process whereby functions become localized primarily on one side of the brain
Analysis of speech takes place largely in the left hemisphere
Analysis of musical sounds takes place largely in the right hemisphere

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27
Q

How is music different than language/speaking

A

Infants show learning preferences for musical scales versus random notes
Children and adults are very sensitive to musical errors: biased toward perceiving regularity in rhythms?

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28
Q

Sensitive Period for Language

A

There is likely a sensitive period for language acquisition that runs from about 1 to 6 years of age

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29
Q

Properties of Music

A
  • Loudness, or amplitude, of a sound wave: subjective
  • Pitch: position of each tone on a musical scale
  • Fundamental frequency
  • Quality: The timbre of a sound, regardless of pitch
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30
Q

Music Processing

A

Music processing is largely a right-hemisphere specialization
The left hemisphere plays some role in certain aspects of music processing, such as those involved in making music
Recognizing written music, playing instruments, and composing

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31
Q

Music as Therapy

A

Parkinson’s: Listening to rhythm activates the motor and premotor cortex and can improve gait and arm training after stroke
Parkinson patients who step to the beat of music can improve their gait length and walking speed
-Also effective for mood disorders (depression)

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32
Q

Tonotopic representation

A

Hair cell cilia at the base of the cochlea are maximally displaced by high-frequency waves that we hear as high pitched sounds
Hair cell cilia at the apex are displaced the most by low frequency waves that we hear as low-pitched sounds
Each hair cell is maximally responsive to a particular frequency and also responds to nearby frequencies

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33
Q

How do we hear different amplitudes?

A

The greater the amplitude of the incoming sound waves, the higher the firing rate of bipolar cells in the cochlea
More intense sound waves trigger more intense movements of the basilar membrane, causing more shearing action of the hair cells, which leads to more neurotransmitter release onto bipolar cells

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34
Q

Interaural Time differences (ITD)

A

Estimate the location of a sound both by taking cues derived from one ear and by comparing cues received at both ears
Each cochlear nerve synapses on both sides of the brain to locate a sound source
Neurons in the brainstem compute the difference in a sound wave’s arrival time at each ear

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35
Q

Interaural Intensity Differences (IID)

A

Another mechanism for source detection is relative loudness on the left and the right
Head acts as an obstacle (sound shadow) to higher frequency sound waves, which do not easily bend around it
As a result, higher-frequency waves on one side of the head are louder than on the other

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36
Q

Echolocation

A

Ability to identify and locate an object by bouncing sound waves off it
Locate targets and analyze features of the target and the environment
Analysis of the differences in return times of echoes is key
Echoes differ with respect to an object’s distance and texture

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37
Q

Echolocation in humans

A

Compared brain activity (using fMRI) between controls and blind ‘echolocation experts’
Specifically in response to the sound of echoes

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38
Q

Motivation

A

Behavior that seems purposeful and goal directed

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39
Q

Types of motivated behaviours

A

Regulatory
-Things that keep us alive
-Eating, drinking, temperature, waste elimination, salt balance
Nonregulatory
-Sexual behaviour, parenting, aggression, curiosity, reading/studying

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40
Q

Chemosignals

A

(chemical signals) play a central role in motivated and emotional behavior
-Identify group members
-Mark territories
-Identify favorite and forbidden foods
-Form associations among odors, tastes, and emotional events
Olfaction and Gustation

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41
Q

Olfaction

A

Scent interacts with chemical receptors in the olfactory epithelium: receptor surface for olfaction
Each olfactory receptor cell sends a process ending in 10 to 20 cilia into a mucous layer, the olfactory mucosa
Metabotropic activation of a specific G protein leads to an opening of sodium channels and a change in membrane potential

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42
Q

Olfactory Pathway(s)

A

Receptor cells project to olfactory bulb
Many olfactory targets (amygdala and pyriform cortex) bypass the thalamus
Thalamic connection does project to the orbitofrontal cortex - Emotional, social, and eating behaviors
-Body odours activate brain regions involved in emotional processing
-A stranger’s odour activates the amygdala and insular cortex

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43
Q

Gustation

A

Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
Especially sensitive to glutamate
Taste receptors are grouped into taste buds
Gustatory stimuli interact with the receptor tips, or microvilli - Ion channels open, leading to changes in membrane potential

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44
Q

Gustatory Pathway(s)

A

Cranial nerves 7, 9, and 10 form the main gustatory nerve, the solitary tract
-Gustatory region in the insula is dedicated to taste
-Primary somatosensory region is responsive to tactile information (localizing tastes and textures on tongue)
Gustatory nerve to orbital cortex: mixture of olfactory and gustatory input gives rise to perception of flavor

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45
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Receives inputs from the frontal lobes and limbic system
Influences behaviors selected by the limbic system
Sends its axons to control brainstem circuits that produce motivated behaviors
Maintains homeostasis by acting on both the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system
Controls an amazing variety of motivated behaviors ranging from heart rate to feeding and sexual activity

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46
Q

Steroid hormone

A

Fat-soluble chemical messenger synthesized from cholesterol

Examples: gonadal (sex) hormones

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47
Q

Peptide/protein hormone

A

Chemical messenger synthesized by cellular DNA that acts to affect the target cell’s physiology
Examples: insulin, growth hormone

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48
Q

Amine hormones

A

Small, simple, modified amino acid

Examples: thyroid hormones, NE, Epi, melatonin

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49
Q

Homeostatic hormones

A

Maintain internal metabolic balance and regulation of physiological systems

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50
Q

Gonadal (sex) hormones

A

Control reproductive functions, sexual development, and behavior

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51
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

Secreted in times of stress; important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism

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52
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Produces neurohormones to stimulate the pituitary gland

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53
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Hypothalamus makes peptides (e.g., oxytocin) that are transported down axons to terminals in the posterior pituitary
Capillaries in the posterior pituitary’s vascular bed pick up these peptides
Peptides then enter the bloodstream, which carries them to distant targets
EX. Oxytocin - social/emotional behavior
Neural tissue

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54
Q

Anterior pituitary

A

Hypothalamus controls the release of anterior pituitary hormones by producing releasing hormones
Releasing hormones
Peptides released by the hypothalamus to increase or decrease the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary
Glandular tissue

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55
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Secretes releasing hormones to influence target endocrine glands

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56
Q

Target endocrine glands

A

Release appropriate hormones into the blood to act on target organs and tissues

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57
Q

Feedback loops

A

Control the amount of hormone released

Hormones influence the hypothalamus to decrease secretion of releasing hormones

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58
Q

Neural regulation

A

Other brain regions (e.g., limbic system and frontal lobes) influence hormone release
Excitatory and inhibitory influences exerted by cognitive activity can influence hypothalamic neurons

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59
Q

Experiential responses

A

Experience can alter the structure and function of hypothalamic neurons

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60
Q

Electrical Stimulation of Hypothalamus

A 
Eating and drinking 
Digging 
Displaying fear 
Predatory or attack behavior 
Reproductive behavior
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61
Q

Eating Behaviour - Hypothalamus

A

receives input from the enteric nervous system (such as information about blood glucose levels)
Hormone systems (such as information about the level of appetite-diminishing CCK)
Parts of the brain that process cognitive factors

62
Q

Eating Behaviour - Amygdala

A

Damage alters food preferences and abolishes taste aversion learning

63
Q

Eating Behaviour - Orbital prefrontal cortex

A

Receives input from the olfactory bulb

Damage may result in decreased eating because of diminished sensory responses to food odor and perhaps taste

64
Q

Hedonic

A

refers to many types of pleasure

65
Q

Anhedonia

A

refers to the lack of pleasure

May be due to dysfunction in the reward system

66
Q

Reward

A

Learning (associations between cues and rewarding stimuli)
Motivation for the reward and the cues that predict them (Wanting, incentive)
Affective (hedonic) responses (Liking or evaluation of pleasure)

67
Q

Robinson and Berridge

A

Wanting and liking have separable neural systems
A rat with damage to the dopamine pathway to the forebrain doesn’t eat, But spraying a food solution into its mouth produces facial expressions indicative of liking, It has no desire to eat (no wanting) but still finds food pleasurable (liking)
A rat with a self-stimulation electrode in the lateral hypothalamus will often eat heartily while the stimulation is on, During stimulation, rats react more aversively to tastes such as sugar and salt than when stimulation is off, The stimulation increases wanting but not liking

68
Q

Wanting

A

Dopamine projections to the prefrontal cortex and striatum predominantly
Widespread

69
Q

Liking

A

Hedonic “hotspots”

Seem to use opioids and endocannabinoids

70
Q

Mesolimbic dopamine system

A

Ventral tegmental area (midbrain) to nucleus accumbens
Dopamine release rises markedly when animals are engaged in intracranial self-stimulation
Amount of dopamine released somehow determines how rewarding an event is

71
Q

(Neuro)psychopharmacology

A

the study of how drugs affect the nervous system and behaviour

72
Q

Drugs

A

Chemical compounds administered to produce a desired change

73
Q

Psychoactive drugs

A

substances that act to alter mood, thought, or behaviour

  • Management of neuropsychological illness
  • Recreational use
  • Potential for abuse
74
Q

Zoopharmacognosy

A

Behavior in which nonhuman animals self-medicate

75
Q

Barriers to Drugs

A

Cell membranes
Capillary walls
The placenta
The blood–brain barrier

76
Q

The blood–brain barrier

A

Prevents most substances, including drugs, from entering the brain via the bloodstream
Endothelial cells in capillaries throughout the body are not tightly joined; it’s easy for substances to move into and out of the bloodstream
Endothelial cell walls in the brain are fused to form tight junctions, so most substances cannot squeeze between them

77
Q

Areas not protected by blood-brain barrier

A

Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Area postrema
Approximately 98% of substances that may alter brain function cannot cross the BBB

78
Q

Dose

A

Drugs bind to receptors with different strengths
- Binding affinity (low = weak; high = strong)
Some drugs bind to multiple receptor types but with different affinities
Higher doses of drug leads to more receptors being activated
Drug molecules can activate receptors to different degrees
- Efficacy (low/no = doesn’t activate; high = fully activate)

79
Q

Dose-response curves

A

Tell us the relationship between the dose and the effects of the drug
Can tell us how ‘safe’ the drug is
- ED50 = effective dose for 50%
- LD50 = lethal dose for 50%
- Therapeutic index = distance between ED50 and LD50

80
Q

Where do drugs act in the brain

A 
Synthesis of neurotransmitter 
Storage of neurotransmitter in vesicles 
Release from the presynaptic cell 
Interaction with the receptor 
Inactivation of excess neurotransmitter 
Reuptake into presynaptic cell 
Degradation of excess neurotransmitter
81
Q

Agonists

A

Drugs that enhance the function of a synapse

Can also have partial agonists

82
Q

Antagonists

A

Drugs that block the function of a synapse

83
Q

Removal of Drugs

A 
Drugs are catabolized (broken down) through a myriad of mechanisms: 
 - Liver – cytochrome P450 enzymes 
 - Kidneys 
 - Intestines, etc. 
Excretion may occur via: 
 - Urine 
 - Feces  
 - Sweat  
 - Exhalation 
 - Breast milk
84
Q

Tolerance

A

A decrease in response to a drug with the passage of time

Typically a result of repeated, regular use of a drug

85
Q

Robinson and Becker study (1986)

A

Rats were given periodic injections of the same dose of amphetamine
Number of times the animal reared (stood up on its back legs) was counted
Increased rearing developed with the periodic injections

86
Q

How tolerance and sensitization occur

A

Increase in the amount of neurotransmitter released
Increase in the number of receptors present on the postsynaptic membrane
Decrease in the rate of transmitter metabolism/reuptake
Changes in the number of synapses

87
Q

Metabolic tolerance

A

The number of enzymes that breaks down alcohol increases

88
Q

Cellular (functional) tolerance

A

Neurons adjust to minimize the effects of alcohol

Adding or removing receptors in the postsynaptic membrane

89
Q

Learned tolerance

A

You learn how to cope with daily living while under the influence
- Cross-tolerance

90
Q

Cross-tolerance

A

The tolerance for one drug is carried over to another

Common for drugs that act on the same receptor type

91
Q

Sensitization

A

Increased responsiveness to successive equal doses of a drug
More likely to occur as a result of occasional use of a drug
Before a person becomes dependent on or addicted to a drug, he or she must be sensitized by numerous experiences with the drug away from the home environment

92
Q

Psychedelics

A
  • Act on serotonin
  • Alters sensory perception and produces peculiar experiences
  • Clinical trials in humans have shown high doses reduces depression ratings in patients with treatment-resistant depression
93
Q

Cannabis

A
  • Interacts with the cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor found on neurons
  • Reduces anxiety, enhances forgetting, reduces nausea and vomiting in cancer patients, stimulates appetite, treats chronic pain
  • Regular use of cannabis has been associated with changes in brain structure (reward system) and function (cognitive impairments)
  • Heavy use of cannabis has been associated with increased risk for schizophrenia
94
Q

Anti-psychotics

A

Acts on dopamine
Used to treat symptoms
- Positive: hallucinations, delusions, bizarre behaviour
- Negative: emotional dysregulation, impaired motivation
- Cognitive: memory and attentional problems, difficulty making decisions and plans

95
Q

Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

A

Holds that some forms of the disease may be related to excessive dopamine activity—especially in the frontal lobes
First-generation antipsychotics
- Preferentially bind to D2 receptors
- Work well for relieving the positive symptoms
Second-generation antipsychotics
- Have dopamine and non-dopamine targets
- Trying to target the negative symptoms

96
Q

Stimulants

A

Stimulant: any drug that increases the activity of the nervous system
Produce alertness
Include: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine, others

97
Q

Caffeine

A

Binds to adenosine receptors without activating them
Also inhibits an enzyme that ordinarily breaks down the second messenger, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP); the resulting increase in cAMP leads to increased glucose production, making more energy available and allowing higher rates of cellular activity

98
Q

Nicotine

A

At low doses, it’s a stimulant, but at very high doses, it dampens neuronal activity
Stimulates acetylcholine nicotinic receptors
Indirectly causes the release of acetylcholine and several other neurotransmitters, including dopamine
Potentially lethal poison, but tolerance develops rapidly

99
Q

Amphetamine

A

Increases dopamine in the synaptic cleft by reversing the dopamine transporter
Amphetamine (Adderall) and methylphenidate (Ritalin) are medically prescribed to treat ADHD
A widely used illegal amphetamine derivative is methamphetamine

100
Q

Substance abuse

A

A pattern of drug use in which people rely on a drug chronically and excessively, allowing it to occupy a central place in their life

101
Q

Addiction

A

A complex brain disorder characterized by escalation, compulsive drug taking, and relapse; called substance use disorder per the DSM-5

102
Q

Frequent use

A

Leading to physical dependence and abuse
Often associated with tolerance
Withdrawal symptoms

103
Q

Physical dependence

A

Physically dependent on the drug to function

When drug use stops, withdrawal symptoms start

104
Q

Withdrawal symptoms

A

Physical and psychological behavior displayed by an addict when drug use ends
Withdrawal effects are usually opposite to the drug effects
Examples: muscle aches and cramps, anxiety attacks, sweating, nausea, convulsions, death

105
Q

Psychomotor activation

A

Increased behavioral and cognitive activity so that at certain levels of consumption, the drug user feels energetic and in control

  • Stimulants
  • Opioids
  • Sedative hypnotics
106
Q

Adverse childhood experiences

A

Environmental factors, called adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), are associated with an increased risk of drug initiation and drug addiction
Can include emotional, physical, and sexual abuse or neglect, among other experiences

107
Q

Gender

A

Females are twice as sensitive to drugs as males, on average
Women are more likely than men to abuse nicotine, alcohol, cocaine, amphetamine, opioids, cannabinoids, caffeine, and PCP

108
Q

Genetics

A

Despite some evidence of a genetic contribution, no gene or set of genes has been found
Any satisfactory explanation of drug abuse will require genetic and learning

109
Q

Personality traits

A

Unusual risk taking may be a trait common to drug abusers

110
Q

Epigenetics

A

Can account both for the enduring behaviors that support addiction and for the tendency of drug addiction to be inherited

111
Q

Pleasure

A

Take the drug for its pleasurable effects These typically wear off, but drug use continues

112
Q

Dependence/Withdrawal

A

Want to avoid withdrawal symptoms
An addict may abstain from a drug for months, long after any withdrawal symptoms have abated, yet still be drawn back to using

113
Q

Incentive sensitization

A

There are two separate systems for wanting and liking
Wanting - Mesolimbic dopamine system
Liking - Opioid neurons

114
Q

Wanting

A

Sensitizes with repeated drug use; craving increases
Involves learning associations
Over time the brain learns that certain cues predict the drug
Those “incentives” become sensitized such that seeing a drug-linked cue produces wanting/craving for the drug

115
Q

Liking

A

Tolerance develops with repeated drug use

Pleasure decreases

116
Q

Frontal cortex

A

Makes the decision to take a drug

117
Q

Opioid systems

A

Related to pleasurable experiences

118
Q

Dopaminergic system

A

Producing wanting of the drug

119
Q

Striatum (Caudate + Putamen)

A

Voluntary control of drug taking gives way to unconscious processes—a habit

120
Q

How do we treat drug addiction

A

The approaches to treating drug abuse vary depending on the drug
The two most used drugs, alcohol and tobacco, are legal
The drugs that carry the harshest penalties, cocaine and heroin, are used by far fewer people
Treating drug abuse is difficult in part because legal proscriptions are irrational

121
Q

Emotions

A

Cognitive interpretations of subjective feelings

122
Q

Three components of emotion

A
  • Autonomic response (e.g., increased heart rate). Hypothalamus and associated structures as well as ENS.
  • Subjective feelings (e.g., fear). Amygdala and parts of frontal lobes.
  • Cognitions (e.g., thoughts about the experience). Cerebral cortex.
123
Q

Which brain areas are involved in emotion

A 
Cingulate gyrus 
Mammillothalamic tract 
Fornix 
Anterior thalamus 
Hippocampal formation 
Amygdala 
Prefrontal cortex
All areas involved in emotions involved in other functions as well
124
Q

Hippocampal formation

A

Hippocampus

  • Distinctive three layered subcortical structure of the limbic system lying in the medial temporal region of the temporal lobe
  • Takes part in species specific behaviors, memory, and spatial navigation
    • Parahippocampal cortex/gyrus
125
Q

Amygdala

A

Almond-shaped collection of nuclei in the limbic system
Receives input from all sensory systems
Many neurons respond to more than one sensory modality (multimodal)
Sends projections primarily to the hypothalamus and brainstem
Intimately connected to the functioning of the frontal lobes
Involved in emotion
Influences autonomic and hormonal responses via connections with the hypothalamus
Influences conscious awareness of the consequences of events and objects via connections with the prefrontal cortex

126
Q

Klüver–Bucy syndrome - Removal of amygdala

A

Symptoms in monkeys:
Tameness and loss of fear
Indiscriminate dietary behavior
Greatly increased autoerotic, homosexual, and heterosexual activity with inappropriate object choice
Tendency to attend to and react to every visual stimulus
Tendency to examine all objects by mouth
Visual agnosia (inability to recognize objects)

127
Q

Why Amygdala is Essential

A

Electrical stimulation produces an autonomic response (such as increased blood pressure and arousal) as well as a feeling of fear
Olfactory information connects directly to the amygdala in the human brain

128
Q

Fear

A

The emotional reaction to threat
Innate and learned components
Avoid other organisms, objects, places that could kill you
Stick to things that are safe
Damage to the amygdala affects both innate and learned fear

129
Q

Fear reactions

A

Defensive behaviours
Protect from threat/harm
Aggressive behaviours
Threaten or harm

(Relatively) Easy to study
Mice/rats – colony-intruder task
Cats vs mice

130
Q

Fear Conditioning

A

Auditory fear conditioning
Specific sounds linked with foot shock

Low road: Thalamus → amygdala = Unconscious response

High road: Thalamus → cortex or hippocampus → amygdala

Conscious response: Contextual fear conditioning, Specific environments linked with foot shock Involves hippocampus as well, Discriminate between environment

131
Q

Emotional memory

A

Memory for the affective properties of stimuli or events
Can be implicit or explicit
Amygdala is critical for emotional memory

132
Q

Emotionally arousing experiences

A

Emotionally driven neurochemical and hormonal activating systems (probably cholinergic and noradrenergic) stimulate the amygdala
The amygdala in turn modulates the laying down of emotional memory circuits in the rest of the brain, especially in the medial temporal and prefrontal regions and in the basal ganglia

133
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

Contributes to specifying the goals of movement
Controls selection of movements appropriate to the particular time and context
Selection may be cued by internal information, such as memory and emotion, or it may be a response to context (environmental information)

134
Q

Damage to the prefrontal cortex

A

Severe effects on social and emotional behavior
Inability to feel and express one’s own emotions and to recognize the emotional expression of others
Apathy and loss of initiative or drive
Inability to plan and organize leads to poor decision making

135
Q

Affective Disorders

A

Major depression

  • Characterized by prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt, disruption of normal eating habits, sleep disturbances, a general slowing of behavior, and frequent thoughts of suicide
  • Has a genetic component (many genes can contribute → no specific gene implicated)
  • Early-life stress may produce epigenetic changes in the prefrontal cortex, higher susceptibility to depression later on
136
Q

Traditional Depression Treatment

A

Traditional
-Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs): Inhibit enzyme that breaks down monoamine NTs (DA, 5-HT, NE)

  • Tricyclics: Block reuptake of monoamine NTs
  • Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): Block reuptake of serotonin specifically

-Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs): Block reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine

137
Q

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

A

As effective as SSRIs

Combined with SSRIs = more effective than either alone

138
Q

Depression Treatment

A

Most often used in treatment(drug)-resistant cases
Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT)
Psychedelics
Deep brain stimulation
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

139
Q

Anxiety

A

Generalized anxiety disorder
Persistently high levels of anxiety, often accompanied by maladaptive behaviors to reduce anxiety; thought to be caused by chronic stress

140
Q

Phobia

A

Clearly defined dreaded object or greatly feared situation

141
Q

Panic disorder

A

Recurrent attacks of intense terror that come on without warning and without apparent relation to external circumstances

142
Q

Treating anxiety

A

Anxiolytics
-Barbiturates used occasionally
-Highly addictive
Benzodiazepines
-Most common treatment
-Augment/enhance GABA’s inhibitory effect by binding to the GABA-A receptor
-Newer drugs target the serotonin system (agonists)

143
Q

Stress

A

A process in which an agent exerts force on an object

Any circumstance that upsets homeostatic balance

144
Q

Stressor

A

A stimulus that challenges the body’s homeostasis and triggers arousal

145
Q

Stress response

A

Physiological and behavioral arousal; any attempt to reduce the stress

146
Q

Activating a stress response

A

Fast-acting: primes the body immediately for fight or flight (epinephrine) (sympathetic)

Slow-acting: both mobilizes the body’s resources to confront a stressor and repairs stress-related damage (cortisol – a glucocorticoid hormone) (parasympathetic)

147
Q

How do we end a stress response?

A

Hippocampus is well suited to detecting cortisol in the blood and instructing the hypothalamus to reduce blood cortisol levels
Too much cortisol will damage neurons in the hippocampus
There is a vicious cycle involving prolonged stress, cortisol levels, and hippocampal functioning

148
Q

Structure of Stress Response

A

Hypothalamus –> pituitary gland –> endocrine gland

149
Q

Risks for increased stress

A

Sleep dysregulation, worry and rumination, avoidant behaviour, relationship tension, lack of social support

150
Q

Being Proactive for Stress

A 
Regulate and create routines 
Watch your self-talk 
Turn down media noise 
Schedule activities 
Keep social contact
151
Q

Reducing Stress

A

-Spend time in nature: 20 min can reduce cortisol levels
-Mindfulness / meditation
-MBSR or MBCT programs → used to reduce stress, depression, anxiety, Reduces activity in the amygdala
Exercise
-Can improve how the body handles stress
-Can provide a time-out from stressors
-May increase neurogenesis in the hippocampus

Brain & Behaviour (3 decks)

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