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midterm 1 concepts Flashcards

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1
Q

RNA is formed by the formation of covalent bonds between _______ of nucleotides

A

5 prime phosphate group and 3 prime hydroxyl group

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2
Q

A Phospholipid is

A

glycerol, two fatty acids containing a phosphate group

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3
Q

what is a carbohydrate and what is the different between a disaccharide and a polysaccharide

A

A carbohydrate includes sugars and polymers of sugars, the most common Monosaccharaide is glucose and when there is in a chain it can be a di(2 of them ) or poly which is multiple

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4
Q

what are examples of lipids and characteristics

A

phospolipids, fats and steroids - hard to mix in water, and a lot of hydrocarbon regions

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5
Q

What are fats consist of

A

includes glycerol and fatty acid, glycerol connect by a coc bond

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6
Q

what is the bond between a fatty acid in a triglyceride (creates a fat which is water fearing) reaction called

A

Easter Linkage

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7
Q

What is the different between saturated and unsaturated fats

A

Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds

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8
Q

what is a phospholipid made of

A

two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to a glycerol

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9
Q

what parts of a phsophoLIPID are hydrophobic or hydrophilic

A

the two fatty acids attached are hydrophobic and the phosphate group and its attachment with glycerol make it hydrophilic because of the c-o and po bonds . This whole thing is amphipathic means it has both basically

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10
Q

how phospolipids arranged

A

The hydrophobic part hence the fatty acids are in the inside. Most cells react with water so u want the hydrophilic part on the outer side

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11
Q

how are steroids characterized

A

they are lipids, with a carbon skeleteon of four rings

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12
Q

name an example of a type of steroid

A

cholestrol present in animal cell memebrans

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13
Q

what are some functions of protein

A

defense storage support etc

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14
Q

what is an amino acid

A

organic molecules with amino and carboxyl groups

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15
Q

amino acids

A

organic molecules with amino and carboxyl groups

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16
Q

Polypeptide

A

this is the unbranched polymers built from these amino acid

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17
Q

peptide bond

A

covalent bond between amin acids

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18
Q

polypepetide

A

polymer of amino acids

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19
Q

what determines a proteins specific activities

A

its three dimensional architecture which is determined by the sequence of amin acids

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20
Q

Primary strucutre of a protein

A

this is the unique sequence of amino acids

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21
Q

Why is butter a solid at room temperature, while vegetable oil is a liquid?

A

Butter is a saturated fat, meaning its molecules can pack closely together because they do not have a kink. This makes it easier to solidify than vegetable oil, which is an unsaturated fat and has a kink that makes its molecules less likely to pack together.

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22
Q

Which of the following occurs when hydrogen is reacted with vegetable oil?

A

When hydrogenated, the oil will be solid at room temperature. This process of hydrogenation creates trans fats, which can result in many health problems.

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23
Q

what kind of bonds holds carbohydrates together

A

glyosidic bonds

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24
Q

what is the composotion of DNa

A

Deoxyribose, phosphate group, nitrogenous base

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25
Q

What is the composition of RNA

A

Ribose, phosphate group, nitrogenous base

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26
Q

what is a nucleotide and give an example

A

a nucleotide is a nitrogenous base a sugar and a phosphate think ATP, adenine sugar triphosphate

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27
Q

what is an example of a nucleoside

A

this is a base and sugar an example would be adenine which is bound to a deoxyrobose sugar

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28
Q

strucutrally what is the difference between RNA and Dna

A

Dna follows a double helix wile rna is a single strand making it more movable

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29
Q

what are the first and second law of thermodynamics

A

first law- energy cannot be created or destroyed
second law- every energy trasnfer increases the entropy in the universe

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30
Q

what is the different between catabolic and anabolic reactions

A

catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down bonds

anabolic consume energy to build bonds

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31
Q

how does metablism work

A

it constantly is loosing nergy so cells conintue to do work

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32
Q

what are the functions of atp

A

energy coupling the release of a phosphate creates energy that is used to drive an energonic process

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33
Q

what is a substrate

A

the reactant that an enzyme acts on

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34
Q

what is an active site

A

the place where the enzyme binds to a substrate, the shape of the active site and substrate explains the function of the enzyme

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35
Q

what are cofactors

A

nonprotein helpers that bind to the enzyme permanently or reversibility with the substrate. Coenzymes are like vitamins

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36
Q

what is a competitive inhibitor

A

similar to substrate and can bind to the active site

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37
Q

noncompetetive inhibitor

A

binds to another part of the enzyme away from the active site which changes shape making it less effective

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38
Q

what characrizes prokaryotic cells

A

they have no nucleous, cytoplasm in the membrane

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39
Q

euroakarytoic cells are characterized by

A

dna in a nucleus bounded by a double membrane,, larger, cytoplasm between membrane and nucelus

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40
Q

what is the plasma membrane

A

the plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients and waste to service volume of every cell, think of it as a way to trasnport things

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41
Q

what is the basic fabric of membranes made of

A

phospholipids, therefore the hydrophilic area is on the outside

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42
Q

what is the purpose of the nucleus

A

has most of the cells genes

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43
Q

describe the nuclear envelope

A

it encloses the nucelus seperating it from the cytoplasm

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44
Q

describe what purpose of ribosomes

A

made of rna and protein responsible for protein synthesis located in cytosol and endoplasim reticulum

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45
Q

what is the difference between prokaryotic cell and euroakryotic cell

A

prokaryotic cellls dont have a nucelus, with unbound dna, no membrane organelles

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46
Q

what is the goli apparetus

A

modifies products of the enendoplastmic reccutulum, sorts and packages materials

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47
Q

what is endoplasmic reticulum

A

outer part of the nucleous, there is rough and smooth er, rough er has bound ribosomes, which secrete glyco proteins and districbute transport vesicles

smooth er synthesizes lipids and detoxifies

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48
Q

what are lyosomes

A

help engulf another cell by phagocytosis ciruclar near er

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49
Q

what are vacuoles

A

large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi

food vacuoles- formed by phagocytosis

contractive vucoles found in fresh water protists, pump excess water out of the cell

central vacuoles found in plans make sap

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50
Q

what is the mitochonidra

A

the sit of cellular respiration uses oxygen to generate atp

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51
Q

what is chorloplasts

A

found in plants allows for photosynthesis, mitochondira and cholorplasts have similartities with bacteria

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52
Q

explain what the cytoskeleton is

A

a network of fibers extending through the cytoplasm , helps to maintain shape and cells structures and activities

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53
Q

what is the function of is an allosteric effector?

A

An allosteric effector is a small molecule that regulates a protein’s activity by binding at a binding site different from its active site.

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54
Q

What is phosporylation?

A

The transfer of phosphate groups to molecules that need to do work. ATP-ADP

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55
Q

what is chemical coupling?

A

Some reactions require energy, others yield energy. The coupling of these reactions make it possible for a pathway to continue.

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56
Q

what does catabolic mean?

A

break bonds

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57
Q

what does anabolic mean

A

building up

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58
Q

what is kinetic energy

A

eneryg of motion

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59
Q

what is cellular respiration

A

a process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and food molecules in the prescense of oxygen

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60
Q

what is the noncompetitive inhibitor

A

an inhibitor that binds at a site different from substrates

61
Q

describe the atp cycle

A

renewing of atp via exegonic and endergonic reactions. THe atp loses its phosphate via exergonic and gains it back via endergonic

62
Q

what is phosytnehsis

A

the process by which a cell captures energy in sinlight and uses it too make food

63
Q

what is a spontaneious reaction

A

a reaction that occurs naturally with no outside addition

64
Q

what is an active site

A

the region an enzyme binds to a protein or other subtance during a reaction

65
Q

what is a substrate

A

the substrate on which an enzyme acts

66
Q

prokaryotic vs eukaryotic

A

prokarytoic dont have membrane bound organellles or a nucleous and are usually smaller

67
Q

organelles in euroakryotic cells

A

endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes lyosomes, golgi apparatus, mitchondira, nucleus, chloroplasts, centrosomes, vacuoles

68
Q

what is the function of the nucleus

A

stores DNA

69
Q

what is the function of the cell membrane

A

regulates what enters and leaves the cell and also protects and supports the cell

70
Q

what is the function of the golgi apparatus

A

sorts and modifies proteins that have arrived from the rough ER

71
Q

what is the function of the rough ER

A

transports and exports proteins synthesized at the ribosomes

72
Q

what is the function of the nucleoplasm

A

maintain shape and structure of nucleus

73
Q

what is the function of the cytoskeleton

A

help keep a cells shape

74
Q

what is an intergal membrane protein

A

inegrated in membrane spans entire width of membrane and has hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions

75
Q

what is a peripheral membran protein

A

attached to the outside loosely associated with proteins or lipids

76
Q

what is the function of the chloroplasts

A

site of photosynthesis

77
Q

what is the relationship between entropy and free energy

A

change in free energy is equal to the sum of the enthalpy plus the product of the temperature and entropy of the system there fore if nethalpy increases so does the change in free enrgy

78
Q

how does ATP function as the “energy currency” of the cell.

A

ATP is an excellent energy storage molecule to use as “currency” due to the phosphate groups that link through phosphodiester bonds

79
Q

why do spontaneous reactions occur slowly

A

because the activation barrier may be hard to overcome and take a slower time

80
Q

what is amicelle and what does it do

A

They are sphere shaped water-soluble micelles with polar end on outside and insoluble end on the inside
Take up free fatty acids which are dissolved in the interior of the molecule
Increase surface area while decreasing diameter of particle
Shuttle the emulsion particle to brush border of jejunum for absorption

81
Q

what is the function of a vacuole

A

to store water

82
Q

what are three types of transport

A

active trasnport which requires eneryg and a transport protein, passive transport no input of energy
bulk transport larger mlelculues

83
Q

what are membranes made out of and what are these properties

A

they are mainly phospolipids which means they have water fearing and water loving parts creating a micelle

84
Q

what structure is common to plant and animal cells

A

mitochondria

85
Q

what does cyanid bind too

A

mmictochondira

86
Q

where are proteins sorted in the cell

A

golgi apparatus

87
Q

do phosopholipids flip flop from one layer to another

A

this is very rare

88
Q

what diffusses easily in a cell

A

smaller non polar or hydrophobic molecules

89
Q

what does an ion channel mediate

A

facilitated diffusion, the process where transport proteins speed the passive movment of molecules acorss a plasma membrane, include channel and carrier proteins

90
Q

cells take up fluids and dissolved solutes via

A

pinocytosis

91
Q

describe osmosis

A

in osmosis water moves across a membrane from areas of lower solute concentration to areas of higher solute concentration

92
Q

what is the voltage across a membran called

A

membrane potential

93
Q

what happens to the membrane in colder temperatures

A

it starts to go from a fluid to a solid state which is why i colder temperatures, animals want to have more unsaturated fats due to the fact this increases solubility

94
Q

explain the importance of cholesterol

A

cholesterol is a component of membranes that reduces fluidity at moderate temperatures by restraining movement of phospholipids and hinders solidification at low temperatures by disrupting packaging

95
Q

what are the two major types of proteins and describe them

A

prepipheral proteins , integral proteins , peripheral are bound to the surfaceof the membrane and inegral are found inside and outside. transmembrane proteins are inegral proteins that span the membrane

96
Q

what kind of seconday structure is found in inegral proteinswhat

A

alpha helix

97
Q

what are some functions of membrane proteins

A

they exhibit selective permeability because of the fluid moscial model non polar can pass easily polar cant

98
Q

what is the different between channel and carrier proteins

A

channel proteins are hydrophilic channels that certain molecules use as an molecule or ion

carrier proteins bind to molecules and change shape to transport tthem

these do not requier energy

99
Q

what is diffusion

A

the movement of particles to spread out evenly in availbale space

100
Q

what kind of transport is diffusion

A

passsive transport requiere no energy

101
Q

what is osmosis

A

it is a type of diffusion where water moves across a selectively permeable membrane, free water molecules diffuse across a membrane from a lower solute concentration to a higher solute. Water keeps moving until the solute concentration on both sides is euqal

102
Q

what is tonocity and descirbe the 3 stages

A

tonicity is an abiity of a surroudning to cause a cell to gain or loose water

a gain in water is called hypotonic which causes the cell to burst or lysed

isotonic is when the at equilibirum

hypertonic is when our cells dont have water which causes it to shrivel

103
Q

describe facilitated diffusion.

A

transport proteins

channel proteins provide corridors for specific molecules/ ions

aquaporins facilitate diffusion of water

ion channels facilitate the transport of ions . some called gated channels open or close in response to stimulus

104
Q

what is active transport

A

requires energy to move solutes against a concentration gradient , usually in the form of ATP

105
Q

what kind of proteins are involved in active transport

A

carrier protiens only

106
Q

what is an electro chemical gradient

A

drives the diffusion of ions across a membrane , the inside of a cell is negative compared to the outside, favoring passive transport of cations into and anions out

107
Q

what is a elecrogenic pump

A

generates energy acrros a membrane storing energy that can be used for callular work

108
Q

cotransport occurs

A

the transport of a solute drives other substances so both arrows going same way

109
Q

what is endocytosis

A

macromollecules are taken into cell vesicles, there are three different types
phagocytosis eating the cell
pinocytosis cellular drinking
receptor mediated endocytpsos

110
Q

what is exocytosis used for -

A

vesicles are fused with membrane and release products . example is pancreas releasing insulin

111
Q

what do peroxisomes do

A

form hydrogen peroxide, helps detoxify

112
Q

cytoskeleton

A

microtibiles, micro filamanets, help support structure and shape

113
Q

what is the extracellular matrix

A

regulars a cells behaviour by communitication with a cell through integrins

114
Q

what are the three types of cell junction

A

a tight juncion, membrans of neighboring cells are pressed together preventing leakage of fluid

desmosomes, fasten cells together

gap junctions provide channels between cells

115
Q

explain what a co factor is

A

non protein helpers which bind to an anzyme

inrognatnic are metal atoms such as iron
organic cofactors are called coenzymes

116
Q

what is allosteric regulation

A

the substrate has another sitre that can be binded with anacitavgor or inhibitor

117
Q

what is an ester linkage

A

bond between monomers of fats

118
Q

what carbon of a sugar does a phosphate group attach too

A

5

119
Q

what carbon is the base attached to

A

1

120
Q

in a phosphodiester bond explain what happens

A

dehydration synthesis where the 3 prime hydroxyl group interacts with the phosphate group

121
Q

what are the major differences between cellulose starch and glycogen can they hydrogen bond

A

starch and glycogen are used in animals and have alpha glucose subunits while cellulose has a straight rigid structure

122
Q

what is a ketone functional group

A

carbon double bonded to oxygen

123
Q

aldehyde functional group is

A

H-C doule bonded to oxygen

124
Q

what is a sulfhydryl group

A

s-h bond

125
Q

carboxyl group is

A

it is c bonded with oh think the group founded on the right of amino acids COOHo

126
Q

carbonyl

A

c double bonded with oxygen and h

127
Q

general structre of an animo acid

A

NH2-CH-COOH where r group bonds with C

128
Q

what are the generic functions of nucleotides and nucleic acids

A

nucleic acids such as rna are used in translation and transcription of DNA to produce proteins in cells. Nuceloeitdes are used in RNA synthesis, and energy generation through ATP

129
Q

what are the purines
and what are pyrimidines

A

purines- adenine and gianine
pyrimines- cytosine uracil thymine

130
Q

describe how size polairty and charges of solutes influence ability to diffuse

A

small non polar moleculue

131
Q

describe how the size, polarity and charge of solutes influences their ability to diffuse
across pure lipid bilayers

A

Size: Some polarized molecules are small enough to slip past the lipid tails. For example, water is a polarized molecule, but its small size allows it to freely diffuse across the cell membrane. This is also true of carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cellular metabolism. Oxygen molecules have no polarity and are also small enough to easily diffuse into the cell. Sugar molecules, which contain five or more carbon atoms, are both polar and too large to diffuse through the cell membrane and must travel through transmembrane proteins.
Polarity and Charge: An ion is an atom or molecule that has an outright charge due to an imbalance between the number of protons and electrons. Polarity is an uneven distribution of charge across a molecule, with some partially positive and negative regions. Charged and polarized molecules dissolve in water while uncharged molecules dissolve in lipids. The lipid tails in the cell membrane prevent charged and polarized molecules from diffusing through the cell membrane. However, some cells actively maintain an electric potential on either side of the cell membrane that can attract or repel ions and polarized molecules.

132
Q

Compare and contrast passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport with reference to the roles of energy and transport proteins in these processe

A

passive diffusion does not require energy think small not charge mollecules that dissolve, osmosis a form of passive diffusion
facilitated diffusion involves channels , or carrier proteins, there are ion channels for ions, aquoporins etc. Channel proteins fore pore, carrier proteins can transfer amino acids sugars etc
active transport only carrier proteins requires energy

133
Q

Describe how the concentration of solutes on either side of a membrane influences the movement of water via osmosis

A

water will move from high to low concentration

134
Q

Compare and contrast the roles of carrier proteins and channels in facilitated diffusion

A

Channel proteins transport substances down the concentration gradient, while carrier proteins transport substances both down and against the concentration gradient. Channel proteins form pores crossing the membrane, thus allowing the target molecules or ions to pass through them by diffusion, without interaction

135
Q

compare and contrast the roles of co-transporters and pumps in active transpo

A

Pumps can be classified as either primary or secondary active transporters based on the method they use to move ions across the gradient. Primary active transporters are usually transmembrane ATPases, that hydrolyse ATP to produce energy in order to transport ions up a concentration gradient.

136
Q

explain how the sodium-potassium ATPase maintains the electrical potential across the plasma membrane

A

The sodium-potassium pump goes through cycles of shape changes to help maintain a negative membrane potential. In each cycle, three sodium ions exit the cell, while two potassium ions enter the cell. These ions travel against the concentration gradient, so this process requires ATP

137
Q

Briefly describe the functions of exocytosis and endocytosis

A

Endocytosis is the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell by engulfing it with the cell membrane, and bringing it into the cell.
Exocytosis describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their contents to the outside of the cell

138
Q

compare and contrast pinocytosis, phagocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

Phagocytosis is the taking in of large food particles, while pinocytosis takes in liquid particles. Receptor-mediated endocytosis uses special receptor proteins to help carry large particles across the cell membrane

139
Q

Glucose uniport

A

Located in the basal and lateral domains of the plasma membrane. Passively transports glucose down its gradient for use by other tissues

140
Q

what is a transmembrane protein

A

its an integral protein that covers the whole membrane

141
Q

Which of the following questions would best help determine if a cell has membrane-bound organelles?

A

Are there distinct environments within the cell?
Distinct environments are formed by internal membranes, which compartmentalize the cell into different membrane-bound organelles.

142
Q

what do both prokaryoitc and eukaryotic cells have

A

they both ribosomes

143
Q

A cell is treated with a toxin that prevents the synthesis of new lysosomes. However, the cell continues to produce the hydrolytic enzymes normally found in lysosomes.
In which of the following structures are the hydrolytic enzymes most likely to accumulate?

A

Golgi complex
Lysosomes are synthesized by the Golgi complex. If new lysosomes aren’t synthesized, and the hydrolytic enzymes continue to be produced, the hydrolytic enzymes will accumulate in the Golgi complex.

144
Q

why is compatibilization helpful

A

A compartmentalized cell has internal membranes that minimize competing interactions within the cell.
Internal membranes minimize competing interactions within a cell by isolating metabolic processes from each other. This allows multiple metabolic processes to occur at the same time within the cell.

145
Q

when a protein denatures does it effect what structure state you are in

A

yes, but there is no speicfication

146
Q

Nucleotides are connected by ____ while base pairing occurs via _____

A

phosphodiester bonds , hydrogen bonds

147
Q

cells are placed in a solution the cells appear to swell and some cells burst this indicates that solution has __ solute concentration then the cytplasm

A

lower, think osmosis the water woll go into the cell of the cell to create a more equal solute concentration

148
Q

true or false: active transport utilizes energy to transport a molecule with its cocentration gradient

A

false

149
Q

using terms of surface area and volume describe why it is that cells remain so small

A

they are compatibilized, cells maintain a high surface area to volume so they can effectively transport molecules and waste in and out of the cell.

Cell bio (3 decks)

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