Midterm 1; Ch 1-7, Lec 1-7 Flashcards
What does the illusory truth refer to
People tend to believe information more if it has been previously encountered
What is an availability heuristic?
Mental shortcut for judging the likelihood of an event or situation occurring based on how easily we can think of similar or relevant instances
What is a representative heuristic?
Mental shortcut for deciding the likelihood of an event based on how much it resembles what we consider to be a “typical” example of that event
What is the incremental view of intelligence?
Intelligence is malleable and can be developed
What is the entity view of intelligence?
Intelligence is fixed and unchangeable
What is the law of small numbers?
Small sample size leads to extreme results
What is the problem with outliers?
Non-representative data points
What is the better than average effect?
Tendency to overestimate our skills, abilities, and performance when comparing ourselves to others
What is the overconfidence phenomenon?
Tendency to be overly confident in the correctness of our own judgements
What is hindsight bias?
Sense that we knew it all along after we learn the actual outcome
What is confirmation bias?
Bias in which we only look for evidence that confirms what we already believe, thereby strengthening the original belief
What is the focusing effect?
Bias in which we emphasize some pieces of information while undervaluing other pieces
What does introspection refer to?
Reflecting on our own thoughts and experiences to find relevant evidence
What is the pleasure paradox?
When an introspective analysis regarding a positive experience results in it becoming less enjoyable
What does belief perseverance refer to?
Maintaining a belief despite encountering contradictory factual information
What law is this; “Extreme outcomes are more likely when considering a small number of cases”
Law of small numbers
What is empirical research vs. non empirical research?
Gaining knowledge with the use of systematic observation, experience, or measurement; nonsystematic methods such as personal experience and opinions
What research method is defined by; “ recreating another persons study to see if the findings are the same”
Replication
What research method is defined by; “research dedicated to expanding the existing knowledge on a topic”
Basic knowledge
What kind of research is defined by; “ research dedicated to solving a problem and helping people by improving their quality of life
Applied research
What is science denialism?
Stubborn refusal to acknowledge the legitimacy of established scientific findings
What does the acronym FLICC refer to?
Denialists key strategies; fake experts, logical fallacies, impossible expectations, cherry picking, conspiracy theories
What does this definition refer to; “claims or beliefs that are misinterpreted as being derived from the use of the scientific method”
Pseudoscience
What does Occam’s razor refer to? What is it also known as?
The cutting away of the unnecessary; principle of parsimony
What is the Barnum effect?
Belief in general personality statements are applicable to self
What is the difference between the IV and DV?
Influences DV; measured variable
What is an explanatory aka predictor variable?
Potential causal variable in non experimental designs
What is a criterion aka response variable?
The outcome variable in non experimental designs
What does meta analysis refer to?
A statistical analysis that compares and combines the results of individual, but smaller, studies
What are experimental designs?
Experimenter controls and manipulates the independent variable
What is a non-experimental aka correlational design?
No control or manipulation of the IV
Is this a between subjects or within subjects design; “data collection in which each participant is assessed on the DV only once”
Between subjects
Is this a between subjects or within subjects design; “data collection method in which each participant or subject is assessed on the DV more than once”
Within subjects
What is a longitudinal design?
Collection of data on participants over a set period of time
What is programmatic research?
Systematic and planned sequence of related studies where subsequent studies build directly on a previous studies findings to prove a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon
What is an operational definition?
Refers to determining how variables will be used in a study
What ethical perspective is this; “your decision should do the greatest good for the greatest number of people”
Utilitarian
What ethical perspective is this; “helping others without personal benefit”
Altruistic
What ethical perspective is this; “individuals should act in accordance with their own self-interests”
Egoism
What are the 3 ethical principles in research?
Beneficence, justice, and respect for persons
What does the ethical principle of beneficence refer to?
Acting with the purpose of benefitting others (pros outweigh the cons; cost, confidentiality; responses not shared, anonymity; responses can’t be tracked back)
What does the ethical principle of justice refer to?
Fairness when deciding who participates and avoiding selection based on vulnerability
What does the ethical principle of respect for persons refer to?
Autonomy; people can make deliberate, informed decisions
What are 3 types of harm that the use of ethical principles hopes to avoid?
Physical and psychological harm, cost of not doing the research
What is the difference between direct and conceptual replication?
Repeat original study; change method to test the same hypothesis
What are 2 examples of questionable research practices (QRP)?
Hypothesizing after results are known (HARKing); p-hacking (dropping participants, reporting only significant results, including some variables but not others
What does nonmaleficence mean?
Do no harm; an ethical obligation to mitigate or eliminate risks to study participants
What does clinical equipoise mean?
Uncertainty as to which of the two treatment options is more beneficial when conducting a study
What kind of consent is required from a person who does not have the ability to consent themselves?
Assent
What is the practice of freely sharing scientific work along all stages of the research process called?
Open science
What are the requirements for the institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)?
At least 5 members, a vet and a practicing scientist experienced in animal research
What is the file drawer problem?
A bias in the scientific community to publish only findings that confirm a researchers hypothesis
What kind of experiment is this; “manipulation of IV and random assignment levels of the IV/random assignment controls for confounding of potential individual difference variables”
True experiment
What kind of experiment is this; “Random assignment is absent and/or it is not possible to use random assignment. That is, the researcher has no control of the IV”
Quasi-experiment
What does the nonequivalent posstest only design consist of?
Administering an outcome measure to two or more groups without random assignment
What does the nonequivalent pretest posttest group refer to?
Partially eliminates a major limitation of the nonequivalent group posttest only design by making baseline measures
What is the difference of the floor effect vs. ceiling effect?
Scores gather at low end of measure, scores gather at high end of measure
What is reliability vs. validity?
Extent to which a measure will produce the same results each time it is used (random error threat); extent to which method measures what it intended to measure (bias/systematic error threat)
What are probability sampling methods (3)?
Simple random, stratified random and cluster random
What are non probability sampling methods (4)?
Convenience, quota, purposive and snowball
What are demand characteristics?
A cue that potentially makes participants aware of what the experimenter expects
What is retrospective bias?
When participants view of interpret past events in an inaccurate way
What does behavioural trace mean?
Behavioural measure that relies on evidence left behind by a participant who is no longer present
What is simple random sampling?
Subset of individuals randomly selected from population
What is stratified random sampling?
Dividing the population into strata or subpopulations and using simple random sampling to select participants from each stratum in proportion to the population at large
What is cluster random sampling?
Dividing total population into groups or clusters, then using simple random sampling to select which clusters participate; all observations in a selected cluster are included in the sample
What is non probability sampling?
Everyone in the population does not have an equal chance of being sampled
What is convenience sampling?
Nonrandom selections of participants who are readily available to the researcher to serve as the sample
What is quota sampling?
Freely choosing any participant as long as they meet predetermined targets for the samples characteristics
What is purposive sampling?
Researchers chooses sample based on who they think would be appropriate or qualified for the study; used when a limited number of people have expertise in the area under investigation
What is snowball sampling?
Existing study participants recruit future participants from among their acquaintances
Is this qualitative or quantitative research; “in depth account of participants perspective of their own world and their experience of events”
Qualitative (think quality)
Is this qualitative or quantitative research; “objectively examine associations between variables, predict outcomes, and make comparisons”
Quantitative (think quantity)
What does archival data consist of?
Data that has already been collected in a naturally occurring setting such as diaries, newspapers, health records, public records, and internet sources
What is a focus group?
A data collection format whereby several participants gather to discuss a topic
What are the characteristics of a structured interview?
Researcher prepares specific questions prior to the interview and asks them in a standardized, fixed order with little to no probing
What are the characteristics of an unstructured interview?
Researcher may anticipate potential topics, but does not plan specific questions or order of topics so that the interview is conversational
What are the characteristics of a semistructured interview?
Combination of structured and unstructured approaches with some questions and portions of the order are preplanned, but remains flexible
What does conversation analysis include?
Examination of natural patterns of dialogue - turn taking, gaze direction, how speakers sequence speech
What does content analysis include?
Analysis of communication, researcher organize responses to summarize substance of the communication, codes data by skimming material and identifying major concepts
What is the grounded theory technique?
Uses information from participants to generate categories, establish themes or recurring ideas in the data and build a theory
What is member checking/response validation?
Data transcripts are presented to participants for feedback
What does triangulation mean?
Using multiple techniques and/or samples to assess the same information and provide a more comprehensive examination
What does reflexivity mean?
Researcher monitors and records their role in the data collection on a continuous basis during the study, allowing for a more accurate assessment of the researcher’s influence
What is the bottom up approach?
Gathering information before formulating hypotheses and theories about how things work
What is the top down approach?
Researcher uses a theory first or deductive approach to test preconceptions and previously established theories with the collected data
What is a holistic analysis?
Allows the researcher to examine how numerous properties contribute to patterns within the larger and more complex system
What is the phenomenological approach?
Seeks to understand a human experience and the meaning of experiences based on how those involved view that situation
What is the critical incident technique?
Purposefully asking the interviewee to focus on a key event or specific behaviour
What is naturalistic observation?
Technique for data collection in which researchers observe events as they occur in a natural setting
What does ecological validity mean?
Research occurs in a real life contect
What is participant observation?
Observer participates with those being observed
What is concealed naturalistic observation?
Collect observational data without informing the participants that they are being observed
What is pilot testing?
Researcher tries out a method to see if it works before collecting data
What is the formula for calculating kappa (k)?
k = [(observed agreement)-(chance agreement)]/(N-chance agreement)
What is duration recording vs. frequency count recording?
Time elapsed and length between behaviours
What are blind observations?
Observers look for particular behaviour, but don’t know why
What is intra-observer reliability?
The need for observers to be consistent within their own codings
What is inter-observer reliability aka inter-rater reliability?
Indicates how much consensus there is between two observers ratings of the same event
What is interval vs. continuous recording?
Observation period broken down into smaller time periods, observers would then indicate if the behaviour occurred; recording all behaviour in specific period
What is contrived observation?
Artificially introducing a variable that we are interested in and then unobtrusively observing what happens
What is a categorical variable?
When researchers measure a variable using distinct groupings
What is the sign for cohen’s kappa coefficient an what is it for?
Statistical measure for interobserver agreement between two observers for categorical items
What is the summated ratings aka likert scale?
A participant evaluates a series of statements using a set of predetermined response options
What is an acquiescent response set?
Response bias whereby a participant tends to agree with most, if not all, of the items on the scale, regardless of what it says
How can you remove acquiescent response bias?
Include reverse coded items
What is error of central tendency?
Response bias whereby a participant tends to avoid using the extreme response alternatives on a scale
What is a potential solution for error of central tendency response bias?
Clear labelling or several points on a scale
What is a potential solution for demand characteristics in regards to response bias?
Include distractor items that are irrelevant and will not be included in overall score
What is internal consistency reliability?
Degree to which individual items in a scare are interrelated
What is cronbach’s alpha? What value do we typically want?
A statistic used to evaluate the internal consistency reliability of a scale. Can range from 0.0 to +1.0; .70
What is face validity?
Degree to which a scale appears to measure the intended variable
What is content validity?
Degree to which the items on a scale reflect the range of material that should be included in a measurement of the target variable
What is construct validity?
The extent to which the scale measures the desired construct
What is convergent validity?
Degree to which scores on a measurement correspond to measures of other theoretically related variables
What is discriminant validity?
Extent to which a measurement does not correspond to measures of unrelated variables
What is criterion validity?
Extent to which a measurement relates to a particular outcome or behaviour
What is concurrent validity?
Extent to which a measurement corresponds to an existing outcome or behaviour
What is predictive validity?
Extent to which a measurement corresponds to a particular outcome or behaviour that occurs in the future
