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Psychology 104 > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the main reason for using a research design?

A

It prevents scientists from wasting their time on techniques that are false and harmful and focus on techniques that give real hope.

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2
Q

What did the prefrontal lobotomy teach scientists?

A

Since scientists believed it cured schizophrenia and other mental disorders, it actually changes the behaviour of the patient and doesn’t cure the disease.

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3
Q

What is the important saying for seeing the difference between intuitive and analytical thinking?

A

The same psychological processes that serve us well in most situations also predispose us to errors in thinking

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4
Q

What is naturalistic observation?

A

By using a mode of recording events, scientists can recorder data based on natural behaviour

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5
Q

What is external validity?

A

The extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

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6
Q

What is internal validity?

A

The extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect interferences

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7
Q

What are case studies?

A

Are experiments where a researcher will examine one person or a small group , often over an extended period of time

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8
Q

Why are case studies helpful?

A

They can be helpful in providing existence proofs

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9
Q

What are self-report measures?

A

Often called questionnaires, or sometimes are surveys which measure people’s opinions and attitude

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10
Q

What is reliability?

A

Consistency of results; test-retest reliability refers to similar scores over time; interrater reliability is the reliability with the rater or tester of the experiment

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11
Q

What are correlational designs?

A

Research designs that examines the extent to which two variables are associated

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12
Q

What is illusory correlation?

A

The perception of a statistical association between two variables where non exists, such as the full moon is correlated to crime or bad events

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13
Q

What is random assignment?

A

Where the experimenter randomly sorts participants into one of two groups, experimental group and the control group

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14
Q

What is the placebo effect?

A

Is a phenomenon that is improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

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15
Q

What is the nocebo effect?

A

It is pretty much the opposite of the placebo effect, where the effect is harm resulting from the expectation of harm, such as voodoo

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16
Q

What is the experimenter expectancy effect?

A

Also called the Rosenthal effect, occurs when researchers’ hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study

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17
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

When research participants can pick up cues from an experiment that allows them to generate guesses regarding the experimenter’s hypotheses.

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18
Q

What is informed consent?

A

It is that researchers must tell subjects what they’re getting into before they can participate, so they can ask questions

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19
Q

What are descriptive statistics?

A

It describes data

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20
Q

What is central tendency?

A

Gives us the ‘central score’ of the data

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21
Q

What is the mean?

A

Known as the average

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22
Q

What is the median?

A

The middle score of the data set

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23
Q

What is the mode?

A

The most frequent score

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24
Q

What is variability?

A

It gives us a sense of how loosely or tightly bunched the scores re

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25
Q

What is the range?

A

Difference between the highest and the lowest scores

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26
Q

What is the standard deviation?

A

The average amount that the individual score differs from the mean

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27
Q

What is inferential statistics?

A

Allows us to determine how much we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population

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28
Q

What is the cell body?

A

Also called the soma, the central region of the neuron, it manufactures new cell components and contains the nucleus

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29
Q

What are dendrites?

A

Branchlike extensions that receive information from other neurons and passes them onto the cell body

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30
Q

What are axons?

A

They are transmitters, they’re specialized at sending messages to other neurons

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31
Q

What are synaptic vesicles?

A

Tiny spheres that travel the length of the axon on their way to a knoblike structure called the axon terminal, when it reaches the end, it bursts

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32
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemical messengers that neurons use to communicate with each others

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33
Q

What is a synapse?

A

A tiny fluid filled space between neurons through which the neurotransmitters travel

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34
Q

What is the synaptic cleft?

A

The synapse consists of a synaptic cleft, a gap into which neurotransmitters are released from the axon of the first neuron

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35
Q

What are glial cells?

A

Glial meaning glue

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36
Q

What are astrocytes?

A

Astrocytes communicate closely with neurons, control blood flow, and play a vital role in the development of the embryo

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37
Q

What are oligodendrocytes?

A

Another type of glial cell which promotes new connections among nerve cells and releases chemical to aid in healing

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38
Q

What is the myelin sheath?

A

An insulated wrapper around axons

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39
Q

What are nodes?

A

This sheath, contains numerous gaps all along the axon

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40
Q

What is the resting potential?

A

When there are no neurotransmitters acting on the neuron

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41
Q

What is the threshold?

A

When the electrical charge inside the neuron reaches a high enough relative to the outside

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42
Q

What is an action potential?

A

Also called the language of neurons, are abrupt waves of electric discharge triggered by a charge inside the axon.

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43
Q

What is the absolute refractory period?

A

A brief interval during which another action potential cannot occur

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44
Q

What is excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)?

A

Is when positive ions are allowed in, this depolarizes the neuron

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45
Q

What is inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)?

A

Is when negative ions move in, it will hyper polarizes the neuron

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46
Q

What are receptor sites?

A

Places on the dendrites that bind with a specific neurotransmitter

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47
Q

What is reuptake?

A

It is when the neuron absorbs the neurotransmitter back, it recycles neurotransmitters

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48
Q

What does it mean when a drug is an agonist or antagonist?

A

It means that it either increases receptor site activity (agonist) or decrease them (antagonist)

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49
Q

What is plasticity?

A

The nervous system’s ability to change

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50
Q

What 4 ways can the brain change?

A

Growth of dendrites and axons, synaptogenesis, pruning, and myelination

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51
Q

What is neurogenesis?

A

It is the creation of new neurons in the adult brain

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52
Q

What are stem cells?

A

They are special embryonic cells, they haven’t committed themselves to a specific function

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53
Q

What is glutamate?

A

It rapidly excites neurons, associated with enhanced learning and memory, can contribute to schizophrenia when in high doses

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54
Q

What is GABA?

A

Gamma-aminobutyric acid, it inhibits neurons, mostly anti-anxiety drugs, helps with sleep and worry

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55
Q

What is acetylcholine?

A

Plays a role in arousal, selective attention, sleep, and memory. Alzheimer’s disease kills cells that release acetylcholine causing memory loss

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56
Q

What are the monamine neurotransmitters?

A

Norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin, called monamine because they only contain amino acids

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57
Q

What is dopamine?

A

Plays a critical role in the rewarding experiences that occur when we seek or anticipate our goals

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58
Q

What are Norepinephrine and Serotonin?

A

They activate or deactivate various parts of the brain, influencing arousal and our readiness to respond to stimuli

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59
Q

What is anandamide?

A

It binds to the same receptors as THC, plays a role in eating, motivation, memory, and sleep

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60
Q

What are neuropeptides?

A

Short strings of amino acids, endorphins are a type of neuropeptide that plays a specialized role in pain reduction, they act like opioids but naturally occur in the body

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61
Q

What is the central nervous system (CNS)?

A

Composed of the brain and the spinal cord

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62
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

A

Composed of all the nerves that extend outside of the CNS

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63
Q

What is the PNS divided into?

A

The somatic nervous system which controls voluntary behaviour, and autonomic nervous system which controls non-voluntary functions

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64
Q

What are cerebral ventricles?

A

Fluid filled pockets that run through our brain and spinal cord, a clear liquid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) runs through these ventricles providing nutrience and cushioning against injury

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65
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A

It analyzes sensory information, helping us perform complex brain functions

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66
Q

What is the forebrain?

A

The most highly developed part of the brain, it gives us our advanced intellectual abilities

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67
Q

What is the corpus callous?

A

Huge band of fibres connecting the cerebral hemispheres

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68
Q

What are the frontal lobes?

A

They lie in the front of the cortex, assists us in motor function, language, and memory, oversee and organize most other brain functions, a process called executive functioning

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69
Q

What is the prefrontal cortex?

A

It is responsible for thinking, planning, and language

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70
Q

What is the Broca’s area?

A

Plays a key role in language

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71
Q

What is the parietal lobe?

A

It is the primary sensory cortex, which is sensitive to touch, including pressure, pain, and temperature

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72
Q

What is the temporal lobe?

A

Prime site of hearing, understanding language, and storing memory, language is called the Wernicke’s area

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73
Q

What is the occipital lobe?

A

Contains the visual cortex, dedicated to seeing

74
Q

What is the association cortex?

A

It synthesizes information to perform more complex functions, such as pulling together size, shape, colour, and location information to identify and object

75
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A

Are structures buried deep inside the cerebral cortex that help control movement

76
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

Diverse parts of the brain dedicated to emotion, also processes information about our internal states such as blood pressure, heart rate, respiration, and perspiration

77
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

It is like the sensory relay station

78
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

Located on the floor of the brain, regulates and maintains constant internal bodily states, the 4 f’s (feeding, fighting, fleeing, fucking)

79
Q

What is the amygdala?

A

Responsible for excitement, arousal, and especially fear

80
Q

What is the hippocampus?

A

Plays a crucial role in memory, especially spatial memory. Hypothesis is that it temporarily stores memories before transferring them to other places

81
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A

Plays a predominant role in our sense of balance and enables us to coordinate movement and learn motor skills. Also contributes to executive, memory, spatial, and linguistic abilities

82
Q

What is the brain stem?

A

Contains the midbrain, pons, and the medulla. Performs some of the basic bodily functions that keep us alive, is also a relay station between the cortex and the rest of the nervous system

83
Q

What is the midbrain?

A

Plays an important role in movement, also controls the tracking of visual stimuli and reflexes triggered by sound

84
Q

What is the reticular activating system (RAS)?

A

It connects the forebrain and cerebral cortex, plays a key role in arousal, damage to the RAS can result in a coma

85
Q

What is the medulla?

A

Regulates breathing, heartbeat, and other vital functions, also controls nausea and vomiting, damage to this area can cause brain death

86
Q

What is the spinal cord?

A

Extends from our brain stem and runs down the middle of our backs, conveying information from our brain to the rest of our body

87
Q

What are interneurons?

A

Send messages to other neurons located nearby, connecting motor neurons and sensory neurons

88
Q

What are reflexes?

A

Automatic motor responses to sensory stimuli

89
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Is active during emotional arousal, especially during crises, it carries out the fight or flight response

90
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Is active during rest and digestion, when there is no threat

91
Q

What are the adrenal glands?

A

Located atop the kidneys, they manufacture adrenaline and cortisol, boosts energy production in muscle cells

92
Q

What are the 5 things that adrenalin does to the body?

A
  1. Opening of the bronchioles (tiny airways) of the lungs
  2. Contraction of our heart muscle and constriction of blood vessels
  3. Breakdown of glycogen (a carbohydrate) into glucose
  4. Breakdown of fat into fatty acids,
  5. Opening the pupils of our eyes
93
Q

What does cortisol cause?

A

It regulates blood pressure and cardiovascular function, as well as the body’s use of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats

94
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A

Controls the other glands, under the control of the hypothalamus

95
Q

What is the pituitary hormone?

A

Called oxytocin, responsible for many reproductive functions, including stretching the cervix and vagina during birth, called the ‘love molecule’

96
Q

What is an EEG?

A

ElectroEncephaloGraph, measures electrical activity generated by the brain

97
Q

What is a CT?

A

A Computed Tomography allows us to visualize the brain’s structure. It’s a 3D reconstruction of multiple X-rays taken throughout a part of the brain

98
Q

What is a MRI?

A

A Magnetic Resonance Imaging, also measures electrical activity generated by the brain, it measures the release of energy from hydrogen atoms in biological tissue following exposure to a magnetic field

99
Q

What is a PET

A

A Positron Emission Tomography, measures changes in the brain’s activity in response to stimuli. Requires the injection of radioactive glucose-like molecules into patients

100
Q

What is a fMRI?

A

A Functional MRI measures the change in blood oxygen level, it is an indirect way to measure brain activity

101
Q

What is a TMS?

A

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the skull to create electric fields in the brain. It can either intcruot or enhance brain function in a specific

102
Q

What is a MEG

A

MagnetoEncephaloGraph detects electrical activity in the brain by measuring tiny magnetic fields, measures brain activity millisecond by millisecond

103
Q

What is lateralization?

A

Is that many capacities rely on one cerebral hemisphere more than the other

104
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Slender threads inside the cells nucleus that carry genes. We have 46 chromosomes in pairs

105
Q

What are genes?

A

Genetic material composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

106
Q

What is a genotype?

A

Set of genes transmitted from our parents to us.

107
Q

What is fitness?

A

Higher the fitness, higher the chance of passing on their genes to a later generation

108
Q

What is heritability?

A

The extent to which genes contribute to differences in a trait among individuals

109
Q

What are family studies?

A

Researchers examine the extent to which a characteristic ‘runs’ together in intact families, don’t show the environmental side

110
Q

What are twin studies?

A

The analysis of how traits differ in individuals in identical versus fraternal twins

111
Q

What are adoption studies?

A

Examine children adopted into a home, where they virtually share zero genetic material however share the same environment

112
Q

What is an illusion?

A

Created when your sensation and perception don’t match its physical reality

113
Q

What is sensation?

A

Detection of physical energy by our sense organs (eyes, ears, tongue, and nose)

114
Q

What is perception?

A

Is the interpretation these raw sensory inputs

115
Q

What is transduction?

A

The process by which the nervous system converts external stimuli, like sound or light, into electrical signals within neurons

116
Q

What is sensory adaptation?

A

When our body lowers the level of sensation after the first detection to conserve energy and resources

117
Q

What is phycophysics?

A

Study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based upon their physical characteristics

118
Q

What is the absolute threshold?

A

The lowest level of a stimulus that we can detect

119
Q

What is the just noticeable difference?

A

The smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can detect

120
Q

What is the Weber’s law?

A

States that there’s a constant proportional relationship between the JND and the original stimulus intensity, the stronger the stimulus, the bigger the change needed for a change in stimulus intensity to be noticeable

121
Q

What is signal detection theory?

A

Describes how we detect stimuli under uncertain conditions, such as trying to understand a friend over the phone when there is static

122
Q

What is synesthesia?

A

A condition in which people experience cross-modal sensations, like hearing sounds when they see colours

123
Q

What is mirror touch synesthesia?

A

A person experience the same sensation that another person experiences

124
Q

What is lexical-gustatory synesthesia?

A

Words are associated with specific tastes or textures

125
Q

What is chromesthesia?

A

Sounds trigger the experience of colour, in the cases of misophonia, sounds trigger strong emotions such as anger or fear

126
Q

What is personification?

A

Numbers, letters, or days of the week take on personality characteristics and sometimes have a characteristic appearance

127
Q

What is number-form synesthesia?

A

Numbers are imagined as mental maps

128
Q

What are spatial sequence synesthesia?

A

Certain sequences of numbers, dates, or months are perceived as closer or farther in space

129
Q

What is selective attention?

A

Allows us to select one ‘channel’ and turn off the others

130
Q

What is filter theory?

A

Views attention as a bottleneck through which information passes, this enables us to pay attention to more important stimuli and ignore others

131
Q

What is cocktail party effect?

A

The ability to pick out an important message, like our name, in a conversation that doesn’t involve us

132
Q

What is unintentional blindness?

A

The failure to detect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focused elsewhere

133
Q

What is change blindness?

A

The failure to detect obvious changes in one’s environment

134
Q

What is hue?

A

Psychologists call the colour of light hue

135
Q

What is the sclera?

A

Simply the whites of the eyes

136
Q

What is accommodation?

A

A process by which the lenses change shape to focus light on the back of the eyes

137
Q

What are feature detector cells?

A

They detect lines and edges

138
Q

What is trichromatic theory?

A

Proposes that we base our colour vision on three primary colour- red, blue, and green

139
Q

What is colour blindness?

A

Most often due to the absence or reduced number of one or more types of cones

140
Q

What is opponent process theory?

A

Holds that we perceive colours in terms of three pairs of opponent cells: red or green, blue or yellow, and black and white. It explains after images

141
Q

What is audition?

A

Sense of hearing

142
Q

What is pitch?

A

Corresponds to the frequency of the wave

143
Q

What is amplitude?

A

Height of the sounds wave, corresponds to loudness

144
Q

What is timbre?

A

Refers to the quality or complexity of the sounds, musical instruments sound different because of timbre

145
Q

What is the cochlea?

A

Converts vibrations into neural activity, its spiral shaped like a snail filled with a thick fluid

146
Q

What is the organ of Corti and basilar membrane?

A

They are critical for hearing because they convert acoustic information into action potentials

147
Q

What is place theory?

A

Where hair cells at the base of the membrane are sensitive to high pitched tones and cells at the top of the membrane are sensitive to low pitched tones, causes pitch to be perceived

148
Q

What is frequency theory?

A

The rate at which neurons fire action potentials reproduces the pitch

149
Q

What is conductive deafness?

A

Deafness due to the malfunctioning of the ear, of the eardrum or the ossicles of the inner ear

150
Q

What is nerve deafness?

A

Deafness due to damage to the auditory nerve

151
Q

What is noise-induced hearing loss?

A

Damage to our hair cells cause by exposure to loud noises over an extended period of time

152
Q

What is olfaction?

A

Sense of smell

153
Q

What is gustation?

A

Sense of taste

154
Q

What are the five basic tastes?

A

Sweet, salty, bitter, sour, and umami (described as ‘meaty’ or ‘savoury’)

155
Q

What are pheromones?

A

Odourless chemicals that serve as social signals to members of one’s species

156
Q

What is the somatosensory system?

A

Used for touch and pain

157
Q

What is gate control model?

A

People experiencing excruciating pain during combat or natural childbirth, the pain is blocked from consciousness because neural mechanisms in the spinal cord function as a ‘gate’

158
Q

What is proprioception?

A

Also called our kinaesthetic sense, helps us keep track of where we are and move efficiently

159
Q

What is vestibular sense?

A

Also called our sense of equilibrium, enables us to sense and maintain our balance as we move about

160
Q

What are our semicircular canals?

A

Located in the inner ear, these canals are filled with fluid which sense equilibrium and help us maintain our balance

161
Q

What is parallel processing?

A

The ability to attend to many sense modalities simultaneously

162
Q

What is bottom-up processing?

A

We construct a whole stimuli from its parts, raw stimuli we perceive and ends with our synthesizing them into a meaningful concept

163
Q

What is top-down processing?

A

Starts with processing in the association cortex, followed by processing in the primary visual cortex

164
Q

What is a perceptual set?

A

Set formed when expectations influence perceptions

165
Q

What is perceptual constancy?

A

Process by which we perceive stimuli consistently across varied conditions, three kinds: shape, size, and colour

166
Q

What is proximity?

A

Objects physically close to each other tend to be perceived as unified wholes

167
Q

What is similarity?

A

All things being equal, we see similar objects as composing a whole

168
Q

What is continuity?

A

We still perceive objects as wholes, even if other objects block them apart

169
Q

What is closure?

A

When partial visual information is present, our brains fill in what’s missing

170
Q

What is symmetry?

A

We perceive objects that are symmetrically arranged as wholes more often than those that aren’t

171
Q

What is figure-ground?

A

Perceptually, we make an instantaneous decision to focus attention on what we believe to be the central figure

172
Q

What is relative size?

A

All things being equal, more distant objects look smaller, and closer objects look closer

173
Q

What is texture gradient?

A

The texture of objects becomes less apparent as objects move apart

174
Q

What is interposition?

A

One objects that’s closer blocks our view of an object behind it

175
Q

What is linear perspective?

A

The outlines of rooms or buildings converge as distance increases

176
Q

What is height in plane?

A

In a scene, distant objects tend to appear higher, and nearer objects lower

177
Q

What is light and shadow?

A

Objects cast shadows that give us a sense of their three-dimensional form

178
Q

What is binocular disparity?

A

Like lenses in a binocular, both eyes give different information, which you brain uses to compare and use to create depth

179
Q

What is binocular convergence?

A

When we look at nearby objects, we focus on them reflexively, called convergence, our brains are aware of how much we do this and use this to estimate distance

180
Q

What is subliminal perception?

A

The processing of sensory information that occurs below the limen; that is the level of conscious awareness

Psychology 104 (3 decks)

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