Midterm 1 Flashcards
D: Competence
The ability to successfully adapt to the environment
-developmental competence is reflected in a child’s ability to use internal and external resources to achieve successful adaptation
D: Developmental Pathway
the sequence and timing of particular behaviours and the possible relationships between behaviours over time
D: Developmental Tasks
markers which tell how children typically progress within various domains as they grow
- there are tasks in broad domains of competence (conduct, academics, etc)
D: Equifinality
the concept that similar outcomes stem from different early experiences and developmental pathways
D: Multifinality
the concept that various outcomes may stem from similar beginnings
D: Protective Factor
a personal or situational variable that reduces the chances for a child to develop a disorder
D: Resilience
the ability to fight off or recover from adverse circumstances
- traits include sustained competence under stress, or quick rebounding to previous competence
D: Risk Factor
a variable which precedes a negative outcome of interest and increases the chances that the outcome will occur
Top 3 Risk Factors
- from disadvantaged families
- born with low birth weight
- parents have mental illness or substance abuse problems
D: Stigma
a cluster of negative attitudes and beliefs that motivates fear, rejection, avoidance and discrimination with respect to people with mental illnesses
D: adaptational failure
failure to master or progress in accomplishing developmental milestones
- this is one of the foundations of many psychological disorders
D: continuity
developmental changes which are gradual and quantitative
- we can use these patterns to predict future behaviour patterns
D: behavioural genetics
a branch of genetics that investigates possible connections between a genetic predisposition and observed behaviour, taking into account environmental and genetic influences
D: developmental psychopathology
an approach to describing and studying disorders of childhood, adolescence, and beyond in a manner tat emphasizes the importance of developmental processes and tasks
D: discontinuity
developmental changes are abrupt and qualitative
- future behaviour is poorly predicted by earlier patterns
D: organization of development
early patterns of adaptation evolve with structure over time and transform into higher-order functions
- prior patterns of adaptation are incorporated into successive reorganizations at subsequent periods of development
D: sensitive periods
windows of time during which environmental influences on development, both good and bad, are enhanced
D: transaction
the dynamic interaction of a child and environment
- they influence each other
- environment and child are both active contributors to adaptive and maladaptive behaviour
D: epinephrine
a neurotransmitter that is produced in the adrenal glands in response to stress
D: frontal lobes
contain the functions underlying most of our thinking and reasoning abilities including memory
- self-control, judgement, emotional regulation
- restructured in teen years
D: gene-environment interaction
genes influence how we respond to the environment and the environment influences our genes
D: molecular genetics
directly assess the association between variations in DNA sequences and variations in a particular trait or traits
D: neural plasticity
the brain’s atomically differentiation is use-dependent; nature provides the basic processes and nurture provides the experiences needed to select the most adaptive network of connections based on use and function
D: etiology
the study of the causes of disorders
D: family systems
a theoretical paradigm that suggests it is difficult to predict the behaviour of a particular family member, such as a child, in isolation from other family members
D: health promotion
a new emphasis in understanding adaptation
- encourages changes, opportunities, and competence to achieve ones potential
D: attachment
the process of establishing and maintaining an emotional bond with parents or other significant individuals
D: Cortisol
a stress hormone that is implicated in a number of psychological disorders, especially mood and anxiety disorders
D: developmental cascades
process by which a child’s previous interactions and experiences may spread across other systems and alter their course of development
- like a chain reaction of developmental events
D: emotion reactivity
individual differences in the threshold and intensity of emotional experience, which provide clues to an individual’s level of distress and sensitivity to the environment
D: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
a regulatory system in the brain that is implicated in some psychological disorders
- part of a feedback loop, where the hypothalamus receives a command from the brain and tells the endocrine system to produce certain hormones
- when the hormones reach the desired level, the hypothalamus tells it to shut off again
- with cortisol, the stress hormone that is released, sometimes the off switch doesn’t work and so the hormones just keep coming
D: emotion regulation
involves enhancing, maintaining, or inhibiting emotional arousal, which is usually done for a specific purpose
D: epigenetic
a biological change to a genetic structure which results from a variety of environmental factors
D: temperament
a child’s organized style of behaviour that appears in early development, which shapes a child’s approach to their environment
D: non shared environment
environmental factors that produce behavioural differences among siblings
D: shared environment
environmental factors that produce similarities in developmental outcomes among siblings of the same family
Temperament Style: Fearful or Inhibited
slow to warm up child
cautious in their approach of challenging situations
more variable in self-regulation and adaptability; may show distress or negativity in some situations
D: social cognition
how children think about themselves and others, resulting in the formation of mental representations of themselves, their relationships, and their social world
D: social learning
a set of theories which consider overt behavbious and also the role of possible cognitive mediators that may influence the behaviours directly or indirectly
- suggests behaviours are learned by conditioning and also observational learning
- we learn in social situations
D: temperament
a child’s organized style of behaviour that appears in early development, which shapes a child’s approach to their environment
- some temperaments seem to be correlated with certain disorders
Name the four attachment styles?
Secure
Insecure- Anxious-avoidant
Insecure- Anxious-Resistant
Disorganized, disoriented
Secure Attachment Style
- infant readily separates from caregiver and explores
- caregiver is a secure base to return to when distressed
- infant returns to exploration after making contact
- this type of attachment style serves as a protective factor against psychological disorders, but they can still occur
Anxious-Avoidant Attachment Style
- infant engages in exploration, seeking little to no affective interaction with caregiver
- infant is not wary of strangers, but distressed if left totally alone
- as stress increases, avoidance increases
- correlated with conduct disorders, aggressive behaviour, depressive symptoms
Anxious-Resistant Attachment Style
- infant show disinterest or resistance to exploration and play
- wary of novel situations and people
- when reunited with caregiver, infant may mix contact-seeking and resistance/fusiness
- correlated with phobias, anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms, depression
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment Style
- infant lacks coherent strategy
- appears disorganized in novel situation and has no consistent pattern or regulating emotions
- correlated with a wide range of personality disorders among others
D: epidemiological research
the study of the incidence, prevalence, and co-occurence of childhood disorders
D: incidence rates
reflect the extent to which new cases of a disorder appear over a given period of time
D: moderator variables
variables that influence the strength or direction of a relationship between two variables
- a relationship between A and B exists, but when M is introduced, the nature of this relationship changes
D: mediator variables
refer the the process, mechanism, or means through which a variable produces a particular outcome
- M explains or helps explain the relationship between A and B
D: ABAB reversal design
a research design where a behaviour baseline is established (A), treatment is introduced for a new baseline (B), treatment is withdrawn and we measure another baseline (A), and finally treatment is reintroduced (B)
D: analogue research
evaluation of a specific variable of interest is done under conditions that resemble or approximate the situation that the researcher wishes to generalize to
D: assent
a child must show some form of agreement to participate without necessarily fully understanding the process or significance
- must have caregiver informed consent and child assent
D: case study
an intensive, usually anecdotal, observation and analysis of an individual child
D: cohort
a group of individuals who are followed at the same time and experience the same cultural or historical events
- cohort effects are of concern in cross-sectional designs
D: comorbidity
the simultaneous occurrence of two or more disorders that is far more common than would be predicted from the general population base rates of the individual disorder
D: correlation coefficient
a number that describes the degree of association between two variables
D: cross-sectional research
different individuals at different ages/stages are studied at the same point in time
D: electroencephalogram (EEG)
measures electrical brain activity and allows us to link brain activity with ongoing thinking, emotion, or state of arousal
D: external validity
refers to the degree to which findings can be generalized to a group of people or situation other than the one it was studied in
D: internal validity
reflects how much a particular variable, rather than extraneous influences, accounts for results, changes, or groups differences
D: naturalistic observation
unstructured observations in the child’s natural environment
D: informed consent
requires that all participants be fully informed of the nature of the research- risks, benefits, expected outcomes, and alternatives- before agreeing to participate
D: structured observation
observation of a child’s behaviour in highly structured situations involving specific tasks or instructions in a clinical/lab setting
D: longitudinal research
research design where the same individuals are studied at different ages/stages as they progress through them
Types of Reliability (3)
Internal Consistency- do all parts of the measurement contribute well
Interrater Reliability- reliability in scoring of different people
Test-Retest Reliability- results are stable over time and in repeated trials
Types of Validity (7)
Face Validity- whether a measure appears to measure what we want
Construct Validity- whether scores on a measure behave as predicted by theory/past research
Convergent Validity- correlation between measures that should be correlated
Discriminant Validity- correlation between measures that should not be correlated
Criterion-Related Validity- how well a measure predicts behaviour where we would expect it to
Concurrent Validity- how well a measure predicts behaviour at the same time
Predictive Validity- how well a measure predicts future behaviour
D: multiple-baseline design
measures multiple behaviours
different responses of the same individual are identified and measured over time to provide a baseline against which changes may be evaluated
D: real-time prospective designs
a research sample is identified and then followed over time, with data collected at specified time intervals
D: research designs
strategies used to examine questions of interest
D: retrospective design
a sample of people is identified at the current time and asked for information relating to an earlier time
D: single-case experimental designs
a research design used to evaluate the impact of treatment on one specific individual; often uses ABAB reversal
D: qualitative research
focuses on narrative accounts, description, interpretation, context and meaning
- purpose: to describe, interpret, and understand a phenomenon of interest in the context it is experienced
D: research
a systematic method of finding answers to questions
D: Clinical Assessments
use of systematic problem-solving strategies to understand children with disturbances and their family and school environments
D: Clinical Description
the first step in understanding a child’s problem; a summary of unique behaviours, thoughts, and feelings that together make up the features of the child’s psychological disorder
- attempts to capture target behaviours, familial concerns, and how they compare to norms
D: Cultural Syndromes
a pattern of co-occuring, relatively invariant symptoms associated with a particular cultural group, community, or context
D: Diagnosis
analyzing information and drawing conclusions about the nature or the cause of the problem, or assigning a formal diagnostic label for a disorder
D: Idiographic Case Formulation
a clinical assessment focused on obtaining a detailed understanding on the individual child or family as a unique entity
D: Nomothetic Formulation
a clinical assessment which emphasizes broad and general inferences that apply to large groups of individuals
- informed by norms; informs idiographic case formulation
D: Prognosis
the formulations of predictions about future behaviour under specified conditions
D: Treatment Planning and Evaluation
using assessment information to generate a plan to address the problem and to evaluate the effectiveness of that treatment
D: Developmental/Family History
information obtained from the parents regarding potentially significant developmental milestones and historical events that might impact the child’s current difficulties
- often includes information about pregnancy, birth, developmental milestones, extended family history, etc.
D: Multimethod Assessment Approach
an approach which emphasizes the importance of obtaining information from different informants in a variety of settings and using a variety of methods to obtain the information
D: Semistructured Interviews
an interview process which includes specific questions designed to elicit information in a relatively consistent manner regardless of who is conducting the interview
D: Behavioural Assessment
a strategy for evaluating a child’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours in specific settings, and then using this information to formulate hypotheses about the nature of the problem and what can be done about it
D: Target Behaviours
behaviours of interest; the primary presenting problems
- the goal is to understand what factors may be influencing these behaviours
D: Behavioural Analysis/ Functional Analysis of Behaviour
a general approach to systematically organizing and using assessment information to in terms of antecedents, behaviours, and consequences (ABC’s)
- goal is to identify as many factors as possible that could be contributing to behaviour and which of those can be changed
D: Test
a task or a set of tasks given under standard conditions with the purpose os assessing some aspect of knowledge, skills, or personality
- not all assessment is in the form of a test, but often tests work together to inform assessment
D: Categorical Classification
systems such as the DSM-5 that are based primarily on informed professional consensus
- tends to assume there is an underlying cause and identifiable, classifiable symptoms
- each disorder is distinct from others
D: Best Practice Guideline
systematically developed statements to assist practitioners and patients with decisions regarding appropriate treatments for specific clinical conditions
D: Developmental Tests
used to assess infants and young children and are generally carried out for the purposes of screening, diagnosis, and evaluation of early development
- identify whether children are meeting developmental milestones and whether they are at risk for future problems
D: Dimensional Classification
systems of classification that assume that many independent dimensions or traits of behaviour exist, and that all children possess them to varying degrees
- only when they are significantly above average (Clinically significant) are we concerned
D: Neuropsychological Assessment
attempts to link brain functioning with objective measures of behaviour known to depend on an intact CNS
D: Projective Tests
tests that present the individual with ambiguous stimuli and asks the individual to describe what they see
- the hypothesis is that an individual will project their personality and the unconscious on the stimuli
D: Cultural Compatibility Hypothesis
treatment is likely to e more effective when it is compatible with the cultural patterns of the child and family
D: Intervention
a broad concept that encompasses many different theories and practices aimed at helping children and families adapt more effectively to their current and future circumstances
D: Prevention
efforts aimed at decreasing the chances that undesired future outcomes will occur
D: Specifiers
are used after assessment with DSM-5 criteria to describe more homogenous subgrouping or individuals with the disorder who share particular features and to communicate information that may be relevant to the treatment of the disorder
D: Treatment
corrective actions that will permit successful adaptation by elimination or reducing the impact of an undesired problem or outcome that has already occurred
D: Evidence-Based Treatments (EBT)
clearly specified treatments shown to be effective in controlled research with specific populations
D: Maintenance
efforts to increase adherence to treatment over time to prevent relapse or recurrence of a problem
Psychodynamic Treatments
P: view child psychopathology as determined by underlying unconscious and conscious conflicts
G: helping the child develop an awareness of unconscious factors that may be contributing to their problems
Behavioural Treatments
P: view abnormal child behaviours as being learned
G: re-educating the child; teaching more adaptive behaviours through reinforcement, modelling, etc.
Cognitive Treatments
P: view abnormal child behaviour as resulting from deficits and distortions in the child’s thinking
G: changing the faulty thought patterns, which should change the behaviours and feelings
Cognitive-Behavioural Treatments
P: view psychological disturbances as the result of both faulty thought patterns and faulty learning
G: Identifying maladaptive cognitions and replace them with more adaptive ones; teaching the child to use cognitive and behavioural coping strategies in specific situations to regulate behaviour
Client-Centred Treatments
P: view child psychopathology as the result of social or environmental circumstances that are imposed on the child and interfere with their capacity for growth and adaptation
G: allow the child to guide the treatment to achieve their own goals
Family Treatments
P: view psychopathology as something that exists both in the child and determined by variable operating in the larger family system
G: interactions with the whole family, focusing on resolving underlying issues and teaching adaptive behaviours
Neurobiological Treatments
P: view psychopathology as resulting from neurobiological impairment or dysfunction
G: treat using primarily psychopharmaceuticals and other biological treatments
D: Psychological Disorders
patterns of behavioural, cognitive, emotional, or physical symptoms linked with one or more of the following:
Distress
Disability
Increased risk for further suffering or harm to self or others
Types of Child Rearing Environments that Predict Resilience for Boys
male role model
structure and rules
encouragement of emotional expressiveness
Types of Child Rearing Environments that Predict Resilience for Girls
combination of being pushed to risk-taking and independence
support from a female caregiver
Maturation in the Brain
0-3y- areas governing basic sensory and motor skills mature
Early Childhood- perceptual and instinctive centres strongly affected
5-7y- prefrontal cortex and cerebellum rewired
9-117- major restructuring occurs, and continues until around age 25
Hindbrain
Lower part of the brain stem
- contains medulla, pons, cerebellum
- essential regulation of autonomic activities
- motor coordination
Midbrain
Upper part of the brain stem
- coordinates movement with sensory input
- diencephalon- thalamus and hypothalamus- important for regulation of behaviour and emotion (relay between forebrain and hindbrain)
Forebrain (3 components)
Highly specialized functions
- limbic system- regulate emotional experience and expression- important in learning and impulse control-regulates basic drives
- basal ganglia- regulates/filters info related to cognition, emotions, mood and motor function
- cerebral cortex- largest part of forebrain; specialized human function- left (cognitive) right (social/creativity)
D: parietal lobes
integrate auditory, visual, and tactile signals
- immature until age 16
D: temporal lobes
emotional maturity
- still developing after age 16
D: corpus callosum
- intelligence, consciousness, and self-awareness
- integrates both sides of the brain
- reaches full maturity in 20’s
D: treatment efficacy
whether the treatment can produce changes under well-controlled conditions
D: treatment effectiveness
whether the treatment can produce changes in clinical practice/real world
Temperament Style: Positive Affect and Approach
easy child
- generally approachable
- adaptive to their environment
- self-regulatory of basic functions
Temperament Style: Negative Affect or Irritability
difficult child
- negative or intense moods
- not very adaptable- get stressed in novel or challenging situations
- arrhythmic
- don’t like limitations placed on them
Developmental Tasks, Common Problems, and Clinical Disorders- 0-2 Years
T: eating, sleeping, attachment
P: stubbornness, temper, toileting
D: mental retardation, feeding disorders, autism
Developmental Tasks, Common Problems, and Clinical Disorders- 2-5 years
T: language, toileting, self-care skills, self-control, peer relationships
P: arguing, attention, disobedience, fears, overactivity, resisting bedtime
D: SL, problems from abuse, anxiety (eg phobias)
Developmental Tasks, Common Problems, and Clinical Disorders- 6-11 years
T: academic skills/rules, rule governed games, simple responsibilities
P: arguing, inability to concentrate, self-consciousness, showing off
D: ADHD, LD, school refusal, conduct problems
Developmental Tasks, Common Problems, and Clinical Disorders- 12-20 years
T: relationships, identity, independence, increased responsibilities
P: arguing, bragging, anger outbursts, risk taking
D: Eating disorders, delinquency, suicide, substance abuse, schizophrenia, depression
