Midterm 1 Flashcards
Morality vs. Ethics
Morality: the principles, teachings, rules and norms that people hold in their life.
Ethics: The discipline that examines morality, and determines which are good or bad.
Moral Theology vs. Theology
Moral Theology (Christian Ethics): a branch of theology that begins with the belief in God
Theology: the study of God, a first person narrative study
Covenant
a promise made between God and the Hebrews
Israel’s response to the Covenant with God:
to live out the Torah (law) by being faithful to one God, the God who saved the Hebrews
History of the Catholic Church
Paul (50s-60s)
We belong to the new world, the new age and the old world and age are falling away(Christians symbolize this through baptism: cleanse and rebirth into the world)
Living in the new world means rejecting violence and embracing love
Christians began to look to Rabbinic Judaism for guidance and law and how to define selves as a community
History of the Catholic Church
Patristic Age (100-600 CE)
The Early Church; Didache
Christians were a minority in the Empire at the beginning at emphasized sticking together
Influence of Augustine of Hippo on Catholic Moral Theology
Augustine of Hippo (354-430): a Bishop in North Africa
Debate with a Monk named Pelagius…
Pelagius thought that Roman Christians were too lax
Christians were following Augustine that humans are imperfect and sinful
Pelagius says that humans can be good, so we must be
Augustine says that humans cannot be perfect because there is original sin (which comes from Adam) that infects each one of us and we need God’s help
Original Sin is a significant contribution of Augustine
Augustine of Hippo (354-430)
a Bishop in North Africa, made significant contributions to Christianity through his philosophy and moral theology, specifically with his “original sin” and “human imperfection”
History of the Catholic Church
Catholic Penitentials (600-1200 CE)
Penitential Practice (Early Celtic, Monastic Tradition)
Monastic: Irish Monks
Guided Priests in how to hear confessions and give appropriate guidance, monks wrote books for Priests called Penitentials
History of the Catholic Church
Penitential Practice (Early Celtic, Monastic Tradition)
How did penitential practice affect moral tradition?
Baptism is the pinnacle of forgiveness; baptism forgives all sins
What if one sins after baptism?
1) A small sin can be forgiven one-on-one through a prayer to God.
2) A serious sin (burder, adultery, idolatry) results in rejection from the Christian faith
But there was a controversy involving popes in North Africa, who said that there is a second way back into the Church: Public Penance
The road back to the Church after sin is hard and public…
Public Penance: confess sin before Bishop in public (in front of town) and penance in front of town (examples: fasting, abstinence, etc.)
Shows that sin is not just between a person and God, but affects a whole community
Thus, people began waiting until the end of life to be Baptized (Example: The Emperor of Constantine was baptized at the end of his life)
Public Penance
Confess sin before Bishop in public (in front of town) and penance in front of town (examples: fasting, abstinence, etc.)
Shows that sin is not just between a person and God, but affects a whole community
Auricular Confession (repeatable):
what we understand as the practice of confession. Took over Europe during 600-1200 CE (era of Catholic Penitentials).
History of the Catholic Church
Fourth Lateran Council
It imposed what was called Eastern Duty: every Christian belonging to the Church was obligated to confess their sins once a year to a priest and to receive the Eucharist once a year at Easter, otherwise a person would be barred from the Church and denied a Christian burial
Helped Priests know who belonged to their Churches
Defined the Church, because those who did not show were part of heredical group
Other duty imposed was on Priests; Priests were obligated to secrecy and confidentiality
Fourth Lateran Council imposed what was called an Eastern Duty:
which said that every Christian belonging to the Church was obligated to confess their sins once a year to a priest and to receive the Eucharist once a year at Easter, otherwise a person would be barred from the Church and denied a Christian burial.
What sparked the Council of Trent?
Some of the Protestant Reformers (such as Martin Luther) denied that confession was actually a sacrament, so the Council of Trent bounced back…
by emphasizing the importance of confession as a sacrament - one of the 7 - and making/defining rules around confession for Priests
History of the Catholic Church
Council of Trent (1543-1563)
The Council of Trent bounced back against Protestant Reformers by emphasizing the importance of confession as a sacrament - one of the 7 - and making/defining rules around confession for Priests.
When you go to confession…
(1) You should have Contrition (state of feeling remorse/sorry)
(2) And confess serious sins with the number and kind of sins
(3) There had to be a penance
Seminaries: Seminarians were taught “Moral Theology”
“Moral Theology” became a new and separate science that was taught only to Priests and to train Priests how to identify a sin, how serious it is, what kind of penance to give
Example: not attending Mass is a serious moral sin with the punishment of hell
According to the Council of Trent, what 3 things must you have when confessing a sin?
When you go to confession…
(1) You should have Contrition (state of feeling remorse/sorry)
(2) And confess serious sins with the number and kind of sins
(3) There had to be a penance
Council of Trent
Seminaries and Moral Theology
Seminaries: Seminarians were taught “Moral Theology”
“Moral Theology” became a new and separate science that was taught only to Priests and to train Priests how to identify a sin, how serious it is, what kind of penance to give
Example: not attending Mass is a serious moral sin with the punishment of hell
What were used to train the seminaries in moral theology during the Council of Trent?
Moral Manuals (i.e. Manuals of Trent)
Manuals of Trent
Moral Manuals preoccupied with sin used to train the seminaries in moral theology and confession during the Council of Trent.
Moral Manuals
- Moral manuals are technical and meant only for Priests
- Seminaries were formed as a result of the Manuals
- The Church was 2 Tiered at this time
- Manuals were preoccupied with Sin
- Sins were seen as individual acts
- Made for an Act-Centred Morality (casuistry/casuistic: concerned with the acts)
- The manuals were very divorced from social lives
- They were especially concerned with sexual sin
- Focused with Canon Law
- Individualistic: focused on the individual; the penitent
- Priests were concerned with being the doctor and judge of the penitent, not of the victim of the sin (example: sinful sexual relations)
Why were the Manuals of Trent problematic?
Issues that arise from an act-centred, sin-centred, pennant-centred moral theology…
- Act-Centred Morality: focused on individual acts, it was not concerned with habits or patterns of behaviour, rather the number of times a sin was committed
Example: getting drunk 3 times in a weekend was treated as 3 different sins, not as one sin of alcoholism - Individualistic
focused on the individual; the penitent and thus the victim was usually ignored.
Priests were concerned with being the doctor and judge of the penitent, not of the victim of the sin (example: sinful sexual relations) - Divorced from Social Lives (Example: they have a lot to say about women and how they dress, but not about nuclear war)
- Canon Law (Biblical/Church Law)
Manuals tie into canon law, not civil law because sin was seen as a violation of a Commandment. The problem with this was the independence of the Church.
What was the central question of focus in the manuals, and what should it have been? What problems did this cause.
How do you deal with the moral weakness of the penitent?
How do you deal with justice? That question brings you to the victim.
A focus on the penitent means that the victim was ignored and nor rightly served justice.
The Penitent
This moral theology, as it was taught up until the 60s, focused on the act, sin, canon (Church) law, but not the bigger picture.
The bigger picture focuses on how we make amends with victims and how we bring justice.
This is likely why the Church has been so poor at handling its sexual abuse crisis.
Why was the Church so poor at handling the crisis of abuse?
One theologian says it is tied to the confessional
Sexuality was to be treated in secret under the seal of the confessional
This created a whole culture that silences sexuality
3 Major Sources of Moral Theology:
- Natural Law
- Human Reason
- Scripture/Tradition
What was the Vatican II Council?
a Council about renewing the Church
Vatican II (1962-1965)
Councils are called to respond to a crisis in the Church
(Example: Trent was a response to the breakup of the Church with Luther’s Protestant reform)
The Church seemed to be stable from the outside.
Europe and Quebec were sending missionaries all over the world.
Pope John XXIII (23rd) calls his Council to renew the Church…
What are some things the Vatican II Council did?
- Liturgy
- Communion
- Holiness
- Inter-religious Relations
- Attitude to the World
What are some things the Vatican II Council did?
- Liturgy
Changed liturgy from Latin to popular languages so that more could actively participate
Architectural changes, change of furniture (Example: Priest faces the people, instead of the same way as the people) → changed a vision of the Church
What are some things the Vatican II Council did?
2. Communion
Ecumenism: Christian Unity
Church was a top-down society with the Pope on top
Vatican re-envisioned the Church in a more communal way:
Communion
Priests were not “super-Christians” but everyone became equals: “People of God”
Language of Law → Language of Scripture
What are some things the Vatican II Council did?
- Holiness
Universal call to holiness: the language of perfection was used for Priests, Nuns, etc. (they took vows), and the laytee were seen as second-class
Vatican II: all Christians are called to holiness
Holiness involves everybody
What are some things the Vatican II Council did?
- Inter-religious Relations
The Catholic Church also then said, that though we are very different, we are holy in similar ways
Opening up the dialogue to the whole world
What are some things the Vatican II Council did?
- Attitude to the World
All of this trickles back to the attitude to the world
The world was seen as a place full of temptation and sin
People of other religions were seen as heretic
The Church now says the world is also a place of grace, not just sin
Criticism of Vatican II
Some said Vatican II was too optimistic and had Social, Political and Economic Concerns
Second Vatican Council published many documents, one being
Der Verbum: the document on Revelation, Scripture, etc.
Der Verbum:
the document on Revelation, Scripture, etc.
According to the Der Verbum, published by the Vatican II Council, how is God revealed?
How is God revealed?
- Covenant of Israel: God is revealed in history and gives human beings law
- Incarnation → Jesus: God becomes man
- Resurrection: God vindicates Jesus by raising him from the dead
- Creation: the world is not just there for us to use, it is a gift
- Holy Spirit (Paraclete): God’s involvement in our day-to-day lives
- Fidelity of God is a divine mystery
The change in focus by Second Vatican Council was from a ________ to a ________ .
Classicist Worldview to Historically-Minded Worldview
Classicist Worldview:
The world is complete and fixed for all of eternity. The world’s order is objective, universal and unchanging.
Supported by and derived from essences and abstract concepts.
Conclusions are secure and remain the same despite how one arrives at it
There are predetermined rules and authority which order must abide by
- Emphasizes one’s obligation to order
- Does not critically analyze biblical citations, but uses them literally
- Clear, simple, certain in its conclusions
- Typically authoritarian and dogmatic
Example of a Classicist Worldview:
Plato’s Theory of Forms, Kant’s Categorical Imperative
Mode of Reasoning used for a Classicist Worldview
Deductive Mode of Reasoning (example: syllogism →
Historically Minded Worldview:
The world is dynamic, evolving and ever changing over time.
Acknowledges that the world is in a constant state of progressive growth and change.
Supported by and derived from concrete, historical evidence and habitual experiences.
Some conclusions will change as there is room for incompleteness, possible error and revision (though they are always accurate enough).
- Historically conditioned
- Emphasizes one’s responsibility and actions (according to the time period)
- Critical use and citation of the Bible, critical thinking and historically analyzed biblical citations
- Respects uniqueness of an individual and their circumstances
- Typically relative and antinomian
Example of a Historically Minded Worldview:
Vatican II Council, Aristotle
Mode of Reasoning used for a Historically Minded Worldview
Inductive Mode of Reasoning (takes cultural and historical facts into account)
Inductive Reasoning
Takes cultural and historical facts into account
It is empirical; it identifies the way things appear the be, which means it is empirical - based on sensual experience - and it acknowledges the empirical sciences.
Open to the social and human sciences (sociology, anthropology, psychology, medical sciences) → empirical evidence
Morality of Obligation
Determining which rules should be followed is a matter of determining who or what is the proper authority, and what that authority says to do.
Rules are imposed on us as obligations by authority.
Example of Morality of Obligation
Plato and the Ring of Gyges (Parable of Morality)
Kant and Practical Reason
Morality of Happiness
Living morally is simply living a most fulfilling, happy life.
Rules we follow point us toward this goal and are participant in this goal
Example of Morality of Happiness
Socrates’ response to Gyges
Aristotle (13th c) says all beings move to certain end (telos) → for humans, that is eudaimonia which is fulfillment and happiness (achieved by virtue: temperance)
According to Aristotle and many of the ancient philosophers, morality is about happiness
Summa Theologiae
Aquinas’ text for beginner students in moral theology
Positive Law vs. Natural Law
Positive Law: the law that citizens plant which govern society
Natural Law: the law of our own being; a pattern that is within us, not something that is imposed on us externally
Basic Human Goods
human company (friendship, community)
religion
seeking the truth
Natural Law Tradition
We can make certain universal normative statements based on universals about human beings that apply across cultures and history to all human beings.
Two Examples of Natural Law employed in the Catholic Tradition:
- Vatican II (gaudium et spes): There is a law within us which holds us to obedience that summons us to do good and avoid evil (a call on conscience).
- Pope John Paul XXIII: Right to life, right to work, right to protection of rights, freedom to worship God, freedom of association
Natural Law
a law of our own being; a pattern that is within us, not something that is imposed on us externally
What is the natural law about?
how we act intelligently regarding our appetites (desires)
Good
the “good” is that which we seek; we are oriented to desire
Aquinas talks about different types of law
- Eternal Law: how God governs the world.
- Natural Law: how humans participate in God’s creative design in a distinct way
- Positive Law: human laws and divine laws.
Aquinas talks about different types of law
Eternal Law
How God governs the world.
God’s creative purpose and visions for the world
Aquinas talks about different types of law
Natural Law
how humans participate in God’s creative design in a distinct way
Human beings are reasonable/rational and therefore free.
We are intelligent that make choices while other creatures act on instinct and do not have a choice in how they act.
NL deals with how humans can be reasonable and free.
There are human goods that we naturally seek, inscribed within us (e.g. human company)
Aquinas talks about different types of law
Positive Law
Human laws and divine laws.
Human Laws: what we are used to
Example: constitutions, law dually enforced by authority for the good of the community
Human laws must reflect natural law, and if they don’t they should be questioned and perhaps disobeyed
Divine Laws: laws of Church and commandments given to humans from God through revelation
Example: around worship of God through liturgy
Positive Law (Human Laws)
Human Laws: what we are used to
Example: constitutions, law dually enforced by authority for the good of the community
Human laws must reflect natural law, and if they don’t they should be questioned and perhaps disobeyed
Positive Law (Divine Laws)
Divine Laws: laws of Church and commandments given to humans from God through revelation
Example: around worship of God through liturgy
What is the Natural Law?
Natural Law says that there is an objective moral law and order imposed on all humans.
- There are commonalities between all humans.
- This order is accessible beyond religious belief
- Natural Law is an objective and universal morality.
- When we talk about law, we think about legislation.
- When we talk about eternal law, we are talking about God’s vision us and for the world.
- It means operating to our full potentiality, harnessing our desires well, entering fully into relationships, entering into own quest for meaning and truth, living well in our body
- God is only offended by human beings when they act against our own welfare; God cares most about our well-being
In the manuals, Natural Law was the ground and Scripture took a second place and was often an add on
(The manuals would argue from Natural Law; on the basis of Natural Law)
Example: Paul’s against fornication is a natural argument evidenced by Scripture
There is a spectrum of ways in which we can use Scripture (both negative/destructive and positive). What are two ways we can reason with Scripture according to NL?
Speculative Reason: abstract, theoretical/logical/deductive reason (concerned with physical law)
Practical Reason: active, willing thought, moral reasoning (concerned with what we do and how we live)
In both, there are first principles (things that are self-evident that we cannot deny)
Speculative Reason
abstract, theoretical, logical, deductive reason (concerned with physical law)
Practical Reason
active, willing thought, moral reasoning (concerned with what we do and how we live)
What was the focus of the Irish Penitentials?
Was this a problem?
Who tried to change this and how?
Irish Penitentials and Manuals were not focused on the 10 Commandments. The real focus was the 7 Deadly Sins (which are not precisely Scriptural).
The 2nd Vatican Council in the 60s renewed Christianity with a focus on Scripture as the heart of moral deliberation, “scripture is the soul of theology”
In both speculative reason there are first principles (things that are self-evident that we cannot deny). What is the first principle?
do good, avoid evil
First Principle of Natural Law
do good, avoid evil
seek the good
First Principle of Natural Law: do good, avoid evil
What 3 inclinations does this principle include?
- All living things have an inclination to preserve our own being
- All living things have an inclination to which nature has taught all animals: sexuality, education to offspring
- Human beings have an inclination to do good; know the truth (about God), live in society
Note: How we apply (2) and (3) in certain moral situations becomes controversial
Why are humans subject to all three inclinations?
because we have rationality and freedom
natural inclinations that are distinctive of human beings
knowledge, meaning, wisdom, sociality, community, friendship, shunning ignorance
Buying into natural law means
buying into the law of virtue (excellence)
General Principles (Example: Road Rules)
General Precepts (Drive Safely): a general rule that does not tell you how to follow it
Intermediate Precepts (Obey the Speed Limit): there are exceptions, for instance, emergency Responders, driving someone to the hospital, passing somebody
Situational Norms: (The speed limit in this zone is 40 km/hour): You cannot tell someone to follow general and intermediate precepts without situational norms
Different Interpretations of what the Natural Law is
Greek Natural Law: Order of Nature (Physicalist Interpretation of NL)
Roman Natural Law: Order of Human Reason (Personalist Interpretation of NL)
Greek Natural Law
Order of Nature/Physicalist
Greek Natural Law focuses on nature and natural order; its passive
The world is a finished product and we must respect that
Example: we must respect the biological processes of procreation
Roman Natural Law
Order of Human Reason/Personalist
Roman Natural Law focuses on human freedom and intelligence, a greater focus on human reason
The world is not a finished product, rather, it is a world we shape
Aquinas derives his natural law from the Greeks and Romans; he incorporates both the
- Order of Human Reason: what we arrive at through our rational freedom/intelligence
- Order of Nature: what we share with animals
Understanding of Natural Law
Physical vs. Personalist
- Physical
Language is ordered towards truth and any misuse of that is against nature - Personalist
What are the goods in the situation that I need to uphold and how do I use language to achieve it
Example of Physicalist Understanding of Natural Law
Pope Pius XI: Casti Connubii
Sex is for procreation only, that is its natural purpose
Those who disobey nature are sinning
Against contraception because it is against nature
Viewing the world as a finished product and sharing natural order with animals
Is the Natural Law the same for all people?
As a general principle, seek the good is self-evident and holds always, universally
General principles are same for most cases, but sometimes fails due to preversion by evil
Can the Natural Law be abolished?
The most general principles (seek the good) are known to all humans and cannot be abolished, but more abstract principles can be
Morality in a Descriptive Sense vs. In a Normative Sense
Descriptive Sense: Rules
Normative Sense: Moral Judgements
Morality (Descriptive Sense)
Rules which govern their life and behaviour
Everyone has a morality in a descriptive sense
Example: Mafia (rules about who you kill, swear allegiance to, etc.)
Morality (Normative Sense)
Moral Judgements that involve critically looking at norms and asking if they are good/bad, right/wrong
We can begin to judge which moralities are better than others
Example: The rules by which the Mafia abides by are wrong
Can you make normative judgements about moralities (example: ranking moralities)?
First, we must find out if there are universal norms, and if those norms have exceptions…
Examples of Universal Norms
Do not violate another human being
Golden rule (all religions)
Obey your conscience (Vatican II)
Do not kill
Problematic Approaches to Scripture
- Literalist/Fundamentalist Reading of scripture
- Proof-Texting
- Eisegesis
Problematic Approaches to Scripture
- Literalist/Fundamentalist Reading of scripture
A literal reading of scripture
Views scripture as plainly comprehensible to any reader that is all God’s intention.
A movement of Evangelist Christians in America to get back to the fundamentals of Christianity. Part of this movement was the inerrancy of scripture (scripture is without error). Now, this way is used by all religions
Problem: Treat the Bible like an Ikea manual (every word of this is meant for your instruction; follow everything).
Example: Creationism
Problematic Approaches to Scripture
- Proof-Texting
Something is argued from a certain perspective, then scripture is used as a secondary to support. Scripture is “tacked on.”
Problem: views the Bible as secondary; it is there simply to polster up arguments that we have concluded on already
Example: the Manuals (Natural Law evidenced by Scripture)
Problematic Approaches to Scripture
- Eisegesis
Reading into the text
Problem: historical gap between reader’s understanding and the text
Reading into text with preconceived assumptions and presuppositions
Example: the Bible foreshadows 9/11; Jesus says to love thy neighbour, Paul says to obey the law of your government
Opposite: Exegesis (reading out of the text; drawing the meaning out of the text; in its historical context, what does this Scripture mean and what is its significance)
Exegesis is a responsible reading of the Bible
Eisegesis is problematic
What is the Bible?
- Anthology: collection of texts and stories
- Aetiology: stories that tell of where things came from (example: Genesis tells of where the pain of childbirth came from)
- 3 Generations of Oral Tradition
- Historical text influenced by its authors and those who have passed it down
- Moral Guidelines, Teachings, Instructions, Laws
Tradition
collective memory and accumulated wisdom of a community
We all belong to overlapping moral communities, Christians belong to a moral community, specifically the Church.
Catholic Church Authority
Local: Magisterium
Regional: College of Bishops
National: Bishop of Rome (Pope)
Universal: Council
Levels of Church Teaching
- Dogmas
- Authoritative Church Teachings
- Concrete Applications/Disciplines
- Dogmas
A core belief of the Christian community
Example: Creeds (I believe in One God, creator of heaven and Earth…)
Stable and Irreversible: They can be refined to make the language more intelligible, but we cannot really imagine Christianity going back on these
- Authoritative Church Teachings
Given by the Church, but they are not core
Example: ban on contraception
Most moral teachings fit here. Anything within the moral realm which deals with the concrete.
- Concrete Applications/Disciplines
Even more specific, deals with concrete situations
Example: was the last Western invasion of Iraq a just war?
This deals with just-war theory, but is specific to a particular concrete example
Development of Tradition (e.g. capital punishment)
2 August 2018: Pope Francis changed phrasing in the Catechism of the Catholic Church
1992: This particular Catechism of the Catholic Church first came out in 1992(and allowed for capital punishment)
1997: John Paul II (Can’t see cases where you have to resort to the death penalty. In principle, the state has the right to execute. In practice, it is hard to see where it would be necessary.)
2018: Pope Francis (No matter how serious a committed crime is, the death penalty is inadmissible because it violates human dignity. The state does not have the right to take away a life, even if the person is an offender.)
According to Winright, does the Bible support capital punishment? Why?
We cannot be sure whether the Bible supports capital punishment, though it does not seem to be in favour of it in the way we have traditionally taken it to be
In many instances, it is unclear whether mentions of capital punishment in the Bible are merely DESCRIPTIVE, or indeed PRESCRIPTIVE.
What 3 grounds commonly used to support capital punishment does Winright think are flawed? Why?
- Jesus says “those who live by the sword, die by the sword”
This does not exactly mean “an eye for an eye”
It iis proverbial for those who do evil will suffer (karma)
Also was a means of controlling violence in society (you cannot take more than an eye) - Jesus Acceptance of the Crucifixion
Used by some as evidence to support capital punishment as morally right
However, part of Jesus’ message includes forgiveness of sins/offering mercy to everyone
Additionally, Jesus’ undergoing of capital punishment is described in the NT as a one-time sacrifice offering salvation from our sins, so it seems questionable to use it as evidence to endorse capital punishment as an everyday practice in the law - Paul’s Letters
Paul’s letters have been mistakenly understood to be endorsing capital punishment: Paul’s acceptance of the unquestioned capital punishment was not him endorsing it
Moral communities can lead us astray since their views on particular things can conflict.
This leaves us asking, which is right? Where should Cs look for moral guidance?
Magisterium: the teaching authority of the Church.
Examples: Council, Synod, Pope, Encyclicals
These teachers are never on their own.
They are always in dialogue
Taking into consideration peoples’ experience
Teaching has to always be listening to others
Problems…
However, this raises dangers of relativism (are there universal norms?)
Who’s experience are priests to be listening to?
Magisterium
The teaching authority of the Church.
Examples: Council, Synod, Pope, Encyclicals
Freedom of Indifference vs. Freedom for Excellence
Freedom of Indifference: a person is free not matter what they choose, as long as it is their choice
Freedom for Excellence: freedom is a human capacity with the purpose of achieving happiness and human flourishing
Freedom of Indifference
a person is free not matter what they choose, as long as it is their choice
Freedom is exercised anytime an action is one’s own
Views morality as a matter of obligation (that can potentially limit our happiness).
Freedom for Excellence
freedom is a human capacity with the purpose of achieving happiness and human flourishing
Freedom also depends on what one chooses, as the person who chooses what is true and good is more free
Views morality as the path to happiness
Liberum Arbitrium
freedom of choice (Augustine)
Can our freedom be limited?
External Limits on Freedom can include: Ability, Bias, Conditioning, Education, Family, Government
We internalize our external limitations, therefore, yes freedom is limited.
If freedom is not presupposed, then morality cannot exist because without freedom, there is no responsibility.
When does responsibility for action exist?
Responsibility exists when there is knowledge and there is freedom to do this action.
Objective Morality vs. Subjective Morality
Objective Morality: certain moral claims are true or false
Subjective Morality: The truth or falsity of a moral claim is relevant to belief
Objective Morality
Certain moral claims are true or false
Universal and Mind Independent
Subjective Morality
The truth or falsity of a moral claim is relevant to belief
Value Judgement
What is an intention?
A goal or purpose toward which we direct ourselves.
Transitive Actions vs. Intransitive Actions
Transitive Actions: our acts have external impacts (they shape the world; they affect the world around us)
Intransitive Actions: our acts have internal impacts (they shape us; they reflect back onto us). We shape our character by our acts (and our neglection of acts)
Transitive Actions
Our acts have external impacts (they shape the world; they affect the world around us)
Intransitive Actions
Our acts have internal impacts (they shape us; they reflect back onto us). We shape our character by our acts (and our neglection of acts).
How does intention give meaning to an act?
Motivation (intention; maxim) gives meaning to our acts because intention is required for an act to possess moral worth.
There is a difference between me hitting a pedestrian with my car because my car mechanically failed, or because I was gunning for them.
Why? The intention in these two cases is different.
A moral act is unique to human beings because it is done with freedom and knowledge.
The Three-Font Principle
The morality of human acts depends on
- Act: the object chosen
- Intention: the end in view
- Circumstances: the circumstances of the action
Our freedom is always conditional, so when we consider the meaning of an act, we must consider the 3 dimensions of the act
3 Font Principle
- act itself
- intention
- circumstances
Why must we consider all 3 dimensions of an act to determine its meaning?
Our freedom is always conditional.
Is the three-font principle act-centred? Is it situational?
Not an act-centred morality, because it focuses on intention and circumstances
Not a situational ethics, because there are acts that cannot be good based on their good intention alone
For an act to be morally right,
the act must be good, the intention must be good and the circumstances are very important.
Intrinsically Evil Acts
acts that can never be justified; evil by their very nature
Why are “intrinsically evil acts” evil?
They are evil because they are seen to be destructive to human goods; hostile to human flourishing.
An intrinsically evil act is not a physical act, but a moral act.
It has to include intention, and to some extent, circumstances. That is why, in some cases, they are permitted with proportional reasoning.
How to determine morally-permissible acts:
Principle of Double Effect (PDE)
Principle of Double Effect (PDE)
(1) Neutrality: the action is itself good or indifferent
The act is not in and of itself bad
(2) Production: the good effect is not produced by means of the evil effect
A good effect cannot come about because of the evil effect
(3) Intention: the evil effect is not directly intended
The act is no motivated by evil intentions
(4) Proportionate Reason: proportionate reason supports causing or tolerating the evil effect
To tolerate/allow/permit the evil effect)
Pre-Moral Evils
Things we identify to have absence of the good.
(example: death, is is not a moral question or issue until we tell of the intentions)
Proportionalism will say, that in many circumstances, there are pre-moral evils
Habit
a sort of “disposition” or “inclination” that we develop through repeated actions, and they influence to act on them as “second nature” (as Aristotle claims)
Virtue
a habit oriented toward the good
A virtue is a stable disposition of doing a habit well and with good intention.
What are habits?
Our habit is a more accurate and wholesome representation of our character.
They represent a person’s moral character since they reflect not only what the person DOES but also who the person IS.
Habits are more stable qualities of a person (though they can change over time)
Habits are consistent external actions with corresponding intentionality
We can determine a person’s character by the habits that they possess
Why do habits give a ore accurate representation of a person’s character than their acts?
\A person’s actions do not always coincide with their habits/character, therefore, it is difficult to judge a person based on only their individual acts (Tennis Player Example)
Habit vs. Virtue
Habit: a stable quality of a person determined by repeated action
Virtue: a habit oriented toward the good
What is a virtue?
A virtue is a stable disposition of doing a habit well and with good intention
Virtue requires good intention and good action
We act with purposes/ends, and moving toward those ends moves us toward excellence. The human life is about forming excellence in ourselves.
We all have moral communities, and not all will value the same virtues
Example: the mafia values honour
Four Cardinal Virtues
- Prudence: practical decision-making
- Fortitude: facing difficulties well
- Justice: relationships with others
- Temperance: ordering desires for pleasure well
- Prudence: practical decision-making
- Fortitude: facing difficulties well
- Justice: relationships with others
- Temperance: ordering desires for pleasure well
Four Cardinal Virtues
Every virtue is a sub-virtue of these four cardinal virtues, claims Aquinas.
They are not Christian virtues, such as faith, hope and love/charity that happen by God’s grace, but exist cross-culturally (but can still happen by God’s grace, too).
They are things that makes us excellent as human beings and shape our inner worldly activities.
Temperance
Temperance is the virtue of controlling our desires well
Are the emotions and desires from which we base our beliefs accurate? Are they based on bias? If they are, we have a social responsibility.
Are our desires just reflexes?
Our desires are not the same as our reflexes.
Our reflexes are sort of our immediate reactions and not controllable (example: hammer on the knee).
Emotion/Desire fall somewhere between Reflexes and Deliberate Decisions.
We can control them, but they are influenced onto us.
We can have habits and emotions ingrained into us, but they are not out of our control…
For instance, do we place ourselves in situations that feed our desires (Example: watching porn → feeling lustful, hanging out with racists → feeling racist).
What is an example of a situation that I can be held responsible for my intemperate desires?
I place myself in situations that feed my bad desires
watching porn → feeling lustful
hanging out with racists → feeling racist)
Four Stages of Virtuous Development
- Intemperance
disordered emotions because they act badly on bad desires
Bad desires: excess or deficiency - Incontinence
disordered emotions because they act badly on bad desires desires, but then they later recognize that their desires and actions are wrong. - Continence
disordered desires, but controls their behaviour in such a way that they do not act on them. - Temperance
good/ordered desires because they do well because they desire to do well, they move toward willing well
Four Stages of Virtuous Development
- Intemperance
A vicious person has disordered emotions because they act badly on bad desires
Bad desires: excess or deficiency
Four Stages of Virtuous Development
- Incontinence
An incontinent person has disordered emotions because they act badly on bad desires desires, but then they later recognize that their desires and actions are wrong
Their awareness of the wrongness of their desires and actions makes them one step closer to becoming virtuous.
Four Stages of Virtuous Development
- Continence
A continent person has disordered desires, but controls their behaviour in such a way that they do not act on them.
They are not fully virtuous, since their disordered desires are present, but they are much closer.
Four Stages of Virtuous Development
- Temperance
A virtuous person has good/ordered desires because they do well because they desire to do well, they move toward willing well
They perform good actions for the right reasons because they desire to do so and it pleases them to act in this way
How do we achieve virtue in this development?
Through “cognitive manipulation” (cognitive behaviour therapy), we can manipulate our desires and emotional stimuli to be ordered by controlling the way we perceive things.
We can habituate our future desires over time through the manipulation of cognition and perception..
What does the Stoics, Kant and Augustine say about desires?
Mattison talks about the Stoics and Kant…
Stoics: get rid of desire, we must suppress desire
Kant: desires get in the way of morality and do not have anything to do with it, we must act on the basis of our duty and moral obligations despite our desires
Augustine: we must desire to do well to be virtuous
This feeds into a morality of happiness instead of a morality of obligation…
Virtue Ethics: Morality of Happiness and its Connection with Natural Law
First Principle of Natural Law: seek the good
This approach suggests that humans are directed toward the good.
Virtues connect us to the general sense that the human being is oriented toward the good
Virtue is connected to kinds of concrete acts.
Virtue Ethics asks 3 questions:
- How do our actions shape who we are?
- How are we ordered towards the good?
- Who am I becoming in and by my acts?
Criticism of Virtue Ethics
some say Virtue Ethics is far too general because it does not provide rules to govern behaviour
How does Mattison respond to the criticism of Virtue Ethics (which criticizes that it is too general)?
Hint: 2 ways
(1) Virtue Ethics is Exemplary
- The examples it provides gives us more than just virtues
- So we know what courage, for example, looks like
(2) Absolute Norms
- Virtue ethics does not say “be courageous, but in the end, the end justifies the means”
- It says that somethings are completely inconsistent with virtue
- Direct killing of the innocent is incompatible with the living out of any of the virtues
- The problem with generality is not with virtues, but with real life
- General rules are reliable to fail because of the complexity of life
