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Physiology > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two classifications of motor neurons and what are they responsible for?

A

Somatic: responsible for reflexes and voluntary control of skeletal muscle.
Autonomic: innervate involuntary targets such as smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands

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2
Q

What are the types of supporting cells in the PNS and what do they do?

A 
Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes): form myelin sheaths around peripheral axon
Satelite cells (ganglionic gliocytes): support cell bodies within ganglia of the PNS
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3
Q

What are the types of supporting cells in the CNS and what do they do?

A

Oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheath around the axons of CNS neurons.
Microglia: migrate around tissue and phagocytize foreign and degenerated material
Astrocytes: regulate the external environment of the neurons
Ependymal cells: line the ventricles and secrete cerebrospinal fluid

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4
Q

What is depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization?

A

Depolarization: When the membrane potential inside the cell increases. Positive ions enter the cell, excitatory
Repolarization: a return to resting potential
Hyperpolarization: when the membrane potential inside the cell decreases. Positive ions leave the cell or negative ions enter the cell, inhibitory.

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5
Q

When is a neuron considered polarized?

A

When the inside is more negative than the outside.

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6
Q

Describe the release of a neurotransmitter

A

NT is enclosed in synaptic vesicles in the axon terminal. When action potential reaches the end of the axon, voltage gated calcium channels open, stimulating the docking and fusion of vesicles to plasma membrane, and exocytosis of NT. A greater frequency of action potential results in more stimulation of the post synaptic membrane. NT diffuses across the synapse where it binds to a specific receptor protein. NT is referred to as the ligand. This results in the opening of ligand gated ion channels, also called chemically regulated ion channels when ligand gated channels open, the membrane potential changes depending in which ion channel is open

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7
Q

Describe EPSP and IPSP

A

EPSP-opening of sodium or calcium channels results in a graded depolarization (excitatory postsynaptic potential). They move the membrane potential closer to threshold-may require several EPSPs to produce action potential
IPSP-opening of potassium or chloride channels results in graded hyperpolarization (inhibitory postsynaptic potential). Move membrane potential farther from threshold-can counter ESPSs from other neurons

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8
Q

Describe acetylcholine receptors

A

Nicotinic-can be stimulated by nicotine. Found on the motor end plate of muscle cells, in autonomic ganglia and in some parts of CNS
Muscarinic-can be stimulated by muscarine from poisonous mushrooms. Found in CNS an plasma membrane of smooth and cardiac muscles an glands innervated by autonomic motor neurons

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9
Q

What are agonists and antagonists?

A

Agonists-drugs that can stimulate a receptor. Nicotine for nicotinic ACh receptors, muscarine for muscarinic.
Antagonists-drugs that inhibit a receptor. Atropine is an antagonist for muscarine receptors. Curare for nicotinic receptors.

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10
Q

What is tetrodotoxin?

A

From the puffer fish. Prevents sodium channel from opening when threshold is reached, inhibits muscle contraction causing heart to stop beating

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11
Q

What is dendrotoxin?

A

From black mamba. Blocks potassium channels, prevents repolarization of nerve and muscle cells, prolongs AP, increase ACh release at the neuromuscular junction, results in hyperexcitability and convulsive symptoms

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12
Q

Describe serotonin, it’s functions, drugs, and receptors

A

Used by neurons in the raphe nuclei. Implicated in mood, behavior, appetite and cerebral circulation. The drugs LSD my be an agonist. Serotonin specific reputable inhibitors (SSRIs) Prozac, Paxil, Zoloft. Over a dozen denizen receptors allow for diversity of serotonin function. Different drugs that target specific serotonin receptors could be given for anxiety, appetite control and migraine headaches

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13
Q

Describe dopamine, it’s functions, drugs, and receptors

A

Neurons that use dopamine are highly concentrated in the midbrain. Nigrostriatal dopamine system – motor control. Parkinson’s disease associated with degeneration if neurons. Patients treated with L-dopa and MAOIs. Mesolimbic dopamine system-emotional reward. Alcohol, cocaine and marijuana promote activity of those neurons. Schizophrenia is associated with too much dopamine in this system, treated with dopamine antagonists

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14
Q

Describe norepinephrine, it’s functions, drugs, and receptors

A

Used in both CNS and PNS. Sympathetic neurons of the PNS use norepinephrine in smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands. Used by neurons of the CNS in brain regions associated with arousal. Amphetamines work by stimulating norepinephrine in brain.

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15
Q

Describe glutamate, it’s functions, drugs, and receptors

A

Amino acid used as most important excitatory neurotransmitter in brain. Produce EPSPs in 80% of synapses on cerebral cortex. Energy required for all the EPSPs constitutes the major energy use in the brain. All glutamate receptors also serve as ion channels.

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16
Q

Describe glycine, it’s functions, drugs, and receptors

A

Amino acid used as a neurotransmitter to produce IPSP. Binding of glycine opens chloride channels. Makes it harder to reach threshold. Important in spinal cord for regulating skeletal muscle movement. Also important in the relaxation of the diaphragm

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17
Q

Describe glutamate, it’s functions, drugs, and receptors

A

Amino acid uses as most important excitatory neurotransmitter in brain. Produce EPSPs in 80% of synapses in cerebral cortex. Energy required for all the EPSPs constitutes the major energy use in the brain. All glutamate receptors also serve as ion channels.

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18
Q

Describe glycine, it’s functions, drugs, and receptors

A

Amino acid used as a neurotransmitter to produce IPSPs. Binding of glycine ions opens chloride channels. Makes it harder to reach threshold. Important in spinal cord for regulating skeletal muscle movement. Also important in the relaxation of the diaphragm

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19
Q

Describe GABA, it’s functions, drugs, and receptors

A

gamma-aminobutyric acid most common NT in brain and is used by one third of brain’s neurons. Inhibitory, opening chloride channels when it binds to its receptor. Involved in motor control, degeneration of GABA-secreting neurons in the cerebellum results in Huntingtons disease. Actions of glycine and GABA are very similar

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20
Q

What is the cerebrum?

A

Largest portion of the brain–80%. Responsible for higher mental functions. Consists of a right and left cerebral hemisphere connected internally by the corpus callosum

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21
Q

Describe the cerebral cortex

A

Outer region of cerebrum composed of grey matter with underlying white matter. Characterized by raised folds called gyri separated by depressed grooves called sulci. Each hemisphere is divided by deep sulci into 5 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital and insula

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22
Q

Describe the brain rhythms picked up by the Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

Alpha waves-active, relaxed brain (frontal/parietal)
Beta-visual stimulation and mental activity (frontal lobe)
Theta-during sleep, in children (occipital/temporal lobes)
Delta-sleep (cerebral cortex)

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23
Q

Where does our knowledge of how the brain controls language come from?

A

Studying people with speech problems.

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24
Q

Describe Broca’s area

A

Located in left inferior frontal gyrus. Broca’s aphasia involves slow poorly articulated speech, no impairment in understanding. Controls motor aspect of speech, other actions of tongue, lips, and larynx not affected

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25
Q

Describe wernicke’s area

A

Located in left superior temporal gyrus. Wernicke’s aphasia involves production of rapid speech with no meaning, called word salad. Language comprehension is is destroyed. Controls understanding of words. Information about written words is sent by occipital lobe

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26
Q

How does speech work in the brain?

A

Word comprehension originates in Wernicke’s area and is sent to Broca’s area along the arcuate fasciculus. Broca’s area sends information to the motor cortex to direct movement of appropriate muscles

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27
Q

Describe the limbic system

A

Group of brain regions responsible for emotional drives. Once called the rhiencephalon or smell brain because it deals with olfaction. There are few synaptic connections between the limbic system and the cerebral cortex which is why it is hard to control your emotions. Emotions controlled by the limbic system include aggression, fear, hunger, sex drive, and goal directed behaviors.

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28
Q

Describe the diencephalon

A

Part of the forebrain that includes the epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus and part of the pituitary gland.

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29
Q

What is the epithalamus?

A

Contains the choroid plexus over the third ventricle whet cerebrospinal fluid is produced. Also contains the pineal gland which secretes the hormone melatonin that helps regulate circadian rhythms

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30
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

Relay center through which most sensory information is passed to the cerebrum. Promotes a state of arousal from sleep and alertness.

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31
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

Important for maintaining homeostasis and regulating the autonomic system

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32
Q

What is the midbrain?

A

Also called the mesencephalon. Includes superior colliculi, inferior colliculi, cerebral peduncles, red nucleus, and substantia nigra. Ventral tegmental area: part of the dopaminergic mesolimbic system that sends neurons to the limbic system and nucleus accumbens in the forebrain. Involved in behavioral reward system, implicated in addiction and psychiatric disturbances

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33
Q

What is the hindbrain?

A

Also called the rhombencephalon. Composed of the metencephalon and myelencephalon.

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34
Q

What is the metencephalon?

A

It is composed of the pons and cerebellum

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35
Q

What is the myelencephalon?

A

Made up of medulla oblongata, all ascending and descinding tracts between the brain and spinal cord pass through the medulla.

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36
Q

What is the medulla oblongata?

A

Contains nuclei required for regulation of breathing and cardiovascular response. Vasometer center controls heart rate. Cardiac control center controls heart rate. Rhythmicity center helps areas on the pons control breathing.

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37
Q

What do the cranial nerves do?

A

Arise directly from nuclei in the brain. Most are mixed nerves with both sensory and motor neurons. Those associated with vision, olfaction and hearing are sensory only. Cell bodies of these neurons are not in the brain but in ganglia located near the sensory organ.

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38
Q

What kinds of neurons are in the PNS?

A

Preganglionic neurons: originate in midbrain or hindbrain, or from thoracic, lumbar, sacral spinal cord
Postganglionic neurons: originate in ganglion

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39
Q

Describe the sympathetic division of the ANS

A

Autonomic nervous system part of PNS. Sympathetic preganglionic neurons come from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord (thoracolumbar division). They synapse in sympathetic ganglia that run parallel to spinal cord. Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine when stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system. The aderenal medulla in the adrenal glands secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine when stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system

40
Q

Describe the parasympathetic of the ANS

A

Autonomic nervous system part of PNS. Preganglionic neurons come from the brain or sacral region of the spinal cord–craniosacral division. They synapse on ganglia located near or in effector organs (terminal ganglia). Preganglionic neurons do not travel with somatic neurons. Effectors in the skin and skeletal muscles (sweat glands, blood vessels) receive sympathetic but not parasympathetic innervation.

41
Q

What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Activates the body for “fight or flight” through the release of norepinephrine from post ganglionic neurons and the secretion of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla. Prepares the body for intense physical physical activity in emergencies by increasing heart rate and blood glucose levels and by diverting blood to skeletal muscles.

42
Q

What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

The parasympathetic division is antagonistic to the sympathetic division. Allows the body to “rest and digest” through the release of ACh and from postganglionic neurons. Slows heart rate, dilates visceral blood vessels, increases digestive activities

43
Q

Describe cholinergic synaptic transmission

A

ACh is the neurotransmitter used by all preganglionic neurons. Also the NT released from most parasympathetic postganglionic neurons. Some sympathetic postganglionic neurons release ACh. These synapses are called cholinergic.

44
Q

Describe adrenergic synaptic transmission

A

Norepinephrine is the NT released by most sympathetic postganglionic neurons. These synapses are called adrenergic.

45
Q

Describe what cooperative effects are and give two examples

A

Occur when both divisions produce different effects that work together to promote a single action. Erection and ejaculation: parasympathetic causes vasodilation and erection, sympathetic causes ejaculation. Urination: parasympathetic aids in urinary bladder contraction, sympathetic helps with bladder muscle tone to control urination.

46
Q

Describe complementary effects and give an example

A

Occur when both divisions produce similar effects on the same target. Salivary gland secretion: parasympathetic division stimulates secretion of water saliva; sympathetic constricts blood vessels so the secretion is thicker

47
Q

What are chemoreceptors?

A

sense chemicals in environment or blood

48
Q

What are photoreceptors?

A

Sense light

49
Q

What are thermoreceptors?

A

Respond to cold or heat

50
Q

What are mechanoreceptors?

A

Stimulated by deformation of receptor (touch, pressure, hearing)

51
Q

What are nociceptors?

A

Pain receptors that depolarize when tissues are damaged

52
Q

What are proprioceptors?

A

Found in muscles, tendons and joints. Provide a sense of body position

53
Q

What are interoceptors?

A

Respond to internal stimuli, found in organs, monitor blood pressure, pH and oxygen concentration

54
Q

What are extroceptors?

A

Respond to stimuli from outside body, includes cutaneous receptors and special senses

55
Q

What is the difference between phasic and tonic receptors?

A

Respond with a burst of activity when stimulus is first applied but quickly adapt to stimulus by decreasing response. Allow sensory adaptation-smell, touch and temperature. Tonic: maintain a high firing rate as long as stimulus is applied

56
Q

Describe where meissner’s corpuscles are found and their function

A

Upper dermis, texture and slow vibrations

57
Q

Describe where Merkel’s discs are found and their function

A

base dermis, touch and pressure

58
Q

Describe where Pacinian corpuscles are found and their function

A

deep dermis, deep pressure and fast vibrations

59
Q

Describe where Ruffini endings are found and their function

A

deep dermis/hypodermis; pressure

60
Q

Describe where free nerve endings are found and their function

A

around hair follicles and throughout skin; light touch, hot, cold and pain

61
Q

Describe taste receptors and their different types

A

Receptors are called taste buds. they are located in bumps on the tongue called papillae. There are three types: fungiform (anterior surface), circumvallate (posterior surface) and foliate (sides).

62
Q

What is the taste pathway?

A

Facial and glossopharyngeal nerve –>medulla oblongata –> thalamus –> primary gustatory cortex of insula, somatosensory cortex of parietal lobe and prefrontal cortex

63
Q

What are the categories of taste and what do they do?

A

Salty: Sodium ions enter taste cell and depolarize it
Sour: hydrogen ions enters cell and depolarizes it
Sweet and umami: sugar or glutamate bind to receptor, activates G protein/2nd messenger to close potassium ion channels.
Bitter: quinine binds receptor, activates G protein/2nd messenger system to release calcium ions into the cell

64
Q

describe the physiology of smell

A

Olfactory receptors are located in the olfactory epithelium of the nasal cavity. G protein is coupled. Odor binding activates adenylate cyclase to make cAMP. Opens sodium and calcium channel, causing depolarization of olfactory neuron. Pathway: olfactory neurons are unmyelinated and synapse on a glomerus in the olfactory bulb. Neurons from the bulb synapse on the prefrontal cortex, medial temporal lobes, hippocampus and amygdala

65
Q

What is the mechanism for sensory hair cells?

A

When stereocilia bend toward kinocilium, potassium channels open and potassium ions rush into cell. Cells release neurotransmitter that depolarizes sensory dendrites in vestibulocochlear nerve. Bending away from kinocilium hyperpolarizes sensory dendrites. Code for detection of direction

66
Q

What is the neural pathway of sensory hair cells?

A

Vestibulocochlear nerve synapses in the medulla. The medulla sends neurons to the oculomotor area of the brain stem to control eye movement and down the spinal cord to adjust body movements.

67
Q

Describe how vibrations travel through the hearing structures

A

Vibrations from the oval window of the middle ear displace perilymph in the scala vestibuli. Vibrations pass into the cochlear duct through the endolymph. Vibrations pass into perilymph of the scala tympani. Vibrations leave the inner ear via the round window.

68
Q

Describe the physiology of sensory hair cells

A

Stereocilia are embedded in a gelatinous tectorial membrane. When sound waves enter the scala media, the tectorial membrane vibrates, bending stereocilia. Opens potassium channels. Postassium ions rush in, depolarizing the cell. Releases glutamate onto sensory neurons.

69
Q

Describe the neural pathway of hearing

A

Vestibulocochlear nerve –> medulla oblongata –> inferior colliculus of midbrain –> thalamus –> auditory cortex of temporal lobe

70
Q

What is conduction deafness? How can it be treated?

A

Sound waves are not conduced from the outer to inner ear. Can be helped by hearing aids

71
Q

What is sensorinueral/perceptive deafness?

A

Nerve impulses are not conducted from the cochlea to the auditory cortex. May be helped by cochlear implants

72
Q

Describe how light passes through the eye

A

Light enters through cornea and into anterior chamber of the eye. Passes through the pupil and lens. Hits the retina, where photoreceptors are found (inner layer). These synapse on a middle layer of bipolar cells, which synapse on the outer layer of ganglion cells. When light hits photoreceptors, dissociation of rhodopsin activates a G-protein/2nd messenger system, which closes sodium channels. Photoreceptors are hyperpolarized, and inhibition on bipolar cells is lifted.

73
Q

Describe the neural pathway of sight

A

Axons from ganglion cells synapse on the later geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. Neurons from the thalamus synapse on the striate cortex of the occipital lobe. 20-30% of the ganglion cell axons synapse on the superior colliculus of the midbrain, helps with eye and body movements.

74
Q

What are some disorders of the eye?

A

Retinal detachment: retina separates from choroid leading to inability to focus.
Cataracts: lens becomes opaque due to insufficient nutrient delivery to lens
Glaucoma: pressure inside eye rises due to drainage of aqueous humor becomes blocked
Color blindness: inability to distinguish full range of colors

75
Q

What are some problems of refraction in the eye? How might these be treated?

A

Myopia: nearsightedness; rays focus in front of retina. Concave lens corrects nearsightedness. Hyperopia: farsightedness; rays focus behind retina.Convex lens corrects farsightedness. Astigmatism: rays do not focus. Uneven lens corrects this. LASIK: surgery for correcting myopia, hyperopia and astigatism, done by cutting thin flaps in cornea to correct shape

76
Q

What is episodic memory, what are the major brain regions involved, the length of memory storage and some examples.

A

Medial temporal lobes, thalamus, fornix, prefrontal cortex. Minutes to years. Remembering what you had for breakfast and what vacation you took last summer

77
Q

What is semantic memory, what are the major brain regions involved, the length of memory storage and some examples.

A

Inferior temporal lobes. Minutes to years. Knowing facts such as what city is the capital.

78
Q

What is procedural memory, what are the major brain regions involved, the length of memory storage and some examples.

A

Basal ganglia, cerebellum, supplementary motor areas. Minutes to years. Knowing how to shift gears in a car and how to tie your shoelaces.

79
Q

What is working memory, what are the major brain regions involved, the length of memory storage and some examples.

A

Words and numbers: prefrontal cortex, Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area. Spatial: prefrontal cortex, visual association areas. Seconds to minutes. Words and numbers: keeping a new phone number in your head until you dial it. Spatial: mentally following a route.

80
Q

What is the anterior spinothalamic tract, its origin, termination, and function

A

Originates at posterior horn on one side of cord but crosses to opposite side. Terminates at thalamus, then cerebral cortex. Conducts sensory impulses for crude touch and pressure.

81
Q

What is the lateral spinothalamic tract, its origin, termination, and function

A

Originates at posterior horn on one side of cord but crosses to opposite side. Terminates at thalamus, then cerebral cortex. Conducts pain and temperature impulses that are interpreted within cerebral cortex.

82
Q

What are the faciculus gracilis and fasiculus cuneatus tracts, their origin, termination, and function

A

Originates at peripheral afferent neurons; ascends on ipsilateral side of spinal cord but crosses over in medulla. Terminates at nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus of medulla; eventually thalamus, then cerebral cortex. Conducts sensory impulses from skin, muscles, tendons, and joints, which are interpreted as sensations of fine touch, precise pressures, and body movements.

83
Q

What is the posterior spinocerebellar tract, its origin, termination, and function

A

Originates at posterior horn; does not cross over. Terminates at cerebellum. Conducts sensory impulses from one side of body to same side of cerebellum; necessary for coordinated muscular contractions.

84
Q

What is the anterior spinocerebellar tract, its origin, termination, and function

A

Originates at posterior horn; some fibers cross, others do not. Terminates at cerebellum. Conducts sensory impulses from both sides of body to cerebellum; necessary for coordinated muscular contractions.

85
Q

What is the lateral corticospinal tract, its category, origin, and is it crossed or uncrossed?

A

Pyramidal, cerebral cortex, crossed

86
Q

What is the anterior corticospinal tract, its category, origin, and is it crossed or uncrossed?

A

pyramidal, cerebral cortex, uncrossed

87
Q

What is the rubrospinal tract, its category, origin, and is it crossed or uncrossed?

A

Extramyramidal, red nucleus (midbrain), crossed

88
Q

What is the tectospinal tract, its category, origin, and is it crossed or uncrossed?

A

extrapyramidal, superior colliculus (midbrain) crossed

89
Q

What is the vestibulospinal tract, its category, origin, and is it crossed or uncrossed?

A

extramyramidal, vestibular nuclei (medulla oblongata) uncrossed

90
Q

What is the reticulospinal tract, its category, origin, and is it crossed or uncrossed?

A

Extrapyramidal. Reticular formation (medulla and pons). Crossed.

91
Q

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

A

Voluntary motor control of skeletal muscles; personality; higher intellectual processes

92
Q

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

A

Somatesthetic interpretation, understanding speech and formulating words to express thoughts and emotions; interpretation of texture and shapes

93
Q

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

A

Intepretation of auditory sensations; storage (memory) of auditory and visual experiences

94
Q

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

A

Integration of movements in focusing the eye; correlation of visual images with previous visual experiences and other sensory stimuli; conscious perception of vision

95
Q

What is the function of the insula lobe?

A

Memory; sensory (principally pain) and visceral integration

96
Q

What is tetradotoxin?

A

prevents Na channel opening when threshold reached, inhibit muscle contraction, causing heart to stop beating

97
Q

Dendrotoxin

A

Blockage of K channels prevents repolarization of nerve & muscle cells, prolong the duration of action potentials, which results in muscle convulsions, paralysis, and death.

Physiology (5 decks)

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