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Human Neuropsychology 1 > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

The brain reaches what percent of its normal adult volume by age 6?

A

90%

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2
Q

Following conception, the nervous system starts to develop after ___ weeks

A

3 weeks

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3
Q

True or False: at birth you have more neurons than you will at any point in your life

A

True, you are born with all of your neurons

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4
Q

When born, are your axons myelinated?

A

No, myelination happens postnatally because myelin would make a baby too heavy to birth

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5
Q

What are the 7 stages of neural development, in order?

A
  1. Neurogenesis
  2. Neuronal migration
  3. Neuron differentiation
  4. Dendrite and axon growth
  5. Formation of synapses
  6. Neuron death/pruning
  7. Formation of myelin
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6
Q

What occurs in the Neurogenesis stage?

A

It begins with segregation of the neuronal plate from the ectoderm
The neuronal plate folds to form the neuronal groove

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7
Q

The process of neural stem cells differentiating into different mature neural cell types is called

A

Embryogenesis

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8
Q

What cells differentiate to produce neurons?

A

Neuroblasts

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9
Q

What cells differentiate to produce glia?

A

Glioblasts

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10
Q

Brain cells are post-mitotic, what does that mean?

A

It means that they are matured at birth and they cannot divide anymore

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11
Q

What are the only 3 regions in the adult brain that can do neurogenesis?

A

Dentate gyrus (in the hippocampus)
Striatum
Subventricular zone and olfactory bulb

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12
Q

What cells from myelin in the CNS? Can they regenerate?

A

Oligodendrocytes

No, they cannot be repaired once damages

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13
Q

What cells form myelin in the PNS? Can they regenerate?

A

Schwann cells

Yes, they are able to regenerate/repair themselves after being damaged

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14
Q

When do astrocytes and oligodendrocytes begin to develop?

A

After most neurogenesis is complete

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15
Q

What are the 3 main modes of neuronal migration

A

Radial Migration
Tangential Migration
Axophilic Migration

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16
Q

Radial Migration

A

During corticogenesis, younger neurons migrate past older ones, moving along radially-oriented glial cells (called somal translocation)

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17
Q

Tangential Migration

A

Mainly cortical interneurons that follow trophic chemicals produced by targets sought by axons

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18
Q

Axophilic Migration

A

Neurons that migrate along the anterior-posterior axis follow the pre-existing tracts

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19
Q

Dendritic Development

A
  • Progressive arborization
  • Growth of dendritic spines
  • Slow process, continues after birth
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20
Q

Morphogen

A

The chemicals that direct the differentiation and growth of neurons into a specific shape

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21
Q

Exuberant Synaptogensis

A

The dramatic proliferation of synapses during early brain development
> But synapses happen all throughout the lifetime

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22
Q

Synaptic Pruning

A

A reduction of the number of synapses of adults following the “use it or lose it” rule

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23
Q

5 Phases of Synaptic Formation and Pruning

A

1 & 2: Generated independently of experience

  1. Rapid growth
  2. Plateau and rapid elimination throughout puberty
  3. Plateau in middle age and stead decline with age
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24
Q

Experience-expectant neuronal changes

A

Genetically driven development of neuronal infrastructure

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25
Q

Experience-dependent neuronal changes

A

Results from the personal experiences of an individual

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26
Q

True or false, the brain has growth spurts

A

True

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27
Q

Environmental characteristics affect brain development at ___age(s)

A

All

> Mostly prenatal and early postnatal

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28
Q

Neuroplasticity

A

The ability of nervous tissue to change the mapping of neural function to neural structure

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29
Q

Can all brain regions be changed by experience?

A

No, some are genetically predetermined and stay the same no matter what you do, like the hypothalamus.

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30
Q

Why do we have neuroplasticity?

A

It is evolutionarily adaptive to be able to adapt to our environment. The brain must be able to calibrate itself to the other body systems because it cannot “know” about the characteristics of body parts as they were independently inherited.

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31
Q

What are “critical periods” in neuroplasticity?

A

Limited time frames when brain regions show maximum plasticity.

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32
Q

2 general types of plasticity

A

Ones that have a critical period

Ones that are plastic forever

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33
Q

7 pieces of evidence for neuroplasticity

A
  1. Change in behaviour
  2. Change in brain anatomy
  3. Change in functional brain maps
  4. Changes in synaptic organization
  5. Changes in physiological organization
  6. Changes in molecular structure
  7. Cellular mitosis
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34
Q

Transduction/Detection

A

Converting stimulus events into neural events

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35
Q

Larger brain size allows for: (4)

A
  • More memory capacity
  • Abstract thinking
  • Symbols are possible and used to communicate information
  • Improved ability to communicate with each other
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36
Q

Most neurons are which type of neuron?

A

Interneurons

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37
Q

Neurons use __x as much ATP as other cells

A

3 times

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38
Q

Transmembrane Potential

A

The voltage difference across the cell membrane

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39
Q

The typical resting potential of a cell

A

~-70mV

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40
Q

Depolarization (less polarized)

A

Reduction (towards 0 V) of the membrane potential of a cell from its normal resting potential

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41
Q

Hyper-polarization (more polarized)

A

An increase in membrane potential of a cell relative to the resting potential

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42
Q

Action potentials propagated along the length of axons act as a communication signal from the ___ ___ to the ___ ___ at the end of the axon.

A

Axon Hillock

Synaptic buttons

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43
Q

Signals transmitted within a neuron are mainly ___

A

Electrical

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44
Q

Signals transmitted between neurons are mainly ___

A

Chemical

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45
Q

After a cell fires it goes into a refractory period, what does that mean?

A

After a cell fires it needs to regenerate its resting potential, in this time the cell is unable to fire

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46
Q

Over shoot (cell firing)

A

After cell firing, during the refractory period, the cell hyper-polarizes past the resting potential ~-90mV

47
Q

6 stages of ions in cell firing

A
  1. When the excitation threshold is met, Na+ channels open and Na+ enters the cell
  2. K+ channels open, K+ enters the cell
  3. (Action potential peak) Na+ channels become refractory, no more Na+ enters the cell
  4. K+ continues to leave the cell, causes membrane potential to return to resting level.
  5. K+ channels close, Na+ channels reset
  6. (Hyperpolarized) Extra K+ outside diffuses away
48
Q

Which axon of what animal is used in research?

A

The giant axon of the squid (not a giant squid)

49
Q

What voltage is the excitation threshold?

A

About +10mV from resting potential (so ~-60mV)

50
Q

What voltage is reached at the peak of an action potential

A

+30mV

51
Q

When is the neuron in absolute refractory (cannot fire) and in relatively refractory (can only fire with a really big EPSP)?

A

The cell is in absolute refractory in the rise and fall of the action potential
Relatively refractory at the end of an action potential when the cell is hyperpolarized

52
Q

Do all action potentials carry information?

A

No, there are some action potentials that are “noise” which are spontaneous actions potential that don’t mean anything

53
Q

What is the use of IPSPs?

A
  • Inhibition allows for the conservation of energy

- It allows for more “combinations” of firing

54
Q

Where are neurotransmitters produced and stored?

A

Within the neuron

55
Q

Information is transmitted between two neurons when:

A
  1. The pre-synaptic membrane releases NT into the synaptic cleft
    AND
  2. The NT bind to certain receptors on the post–synaptic membrane
56
Q

Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential (EPSP)

A

An excitatory depolarization on the membrane of the dendrite that make an action potential more likely

57
Q

Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential

A

An inhibitory hyperpolarization on the membrane of the dendrites that make an action potential less likely

58
Q

What is neural integration and what are the two types?

A

It is the sum of the IPSPs and EPSPs in a short period of time that will determine whether there is an action potential.
Temporal - they need to happen in close after each other
Spatial - they need to happen in close proximity to each other

59
Q

Rate Law

A

The intensity of a stimulus is carries in the rate of action potentials (not the intensity)

60
Q

Neural Coding

A

Special patterns of firing that allow for more info to be carried than would be able with 100 action potentials/sec

61
Q

Release Zone

A

A region of the interior of a presynaptic membrane of a synapse to which synaptic vesicles attach and release their neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

62
Q

Nervous System Agent

A

Any chemical capable of changing any aspects of the processes of neural communication
> typically dose dependent

63
Q

Dose Response

A 
The function relating the dose level of a drug to the drug's effect on the nervous system and/or other body tissues 
Where 50% of people have this effect:
Therapeutic or "Effective" dose 
Toxic dose 
Lethal dose
64
Q

Side Effects

A

Unintended consequences on the nervous system of a drug (either harmful or not)

65
Q

Contraindictions

A

Negative side effects

66
Q

Nervous System Agonist

A

Drugs that increase the rate of synaptic communication via NT

67
Q

Nervous System Antagonists

A

Drugs that decrease the rate of synaptic communication via NT

68
Q

2 types of Agonists

A
  1. Direct Binding = drugs that directly bind to the post synaptic receptors
  2. Indirect Binding = agonists that enhance the neurotransmitter action by stimulating NT release
69
Q

2 types of Antagonists

A
  1. Direct Acting = block NT from binding to the receptors

2. Indirect Acting = inhibit release or production of NT

70
Q

Learn the 11 ways that drugs affect neural communication mechanisms and an example of a drug for each

A

Picture in photos

71
Q

Drug substitutes for one of the precursor chemicals involved in production of NT

A

Agonist

>L-DOPA

72
Q

Drug inhibits production of NT by a precursor chemical (messes up one of the building blocks)

A

Antagonist

>PCPA

73
Q

Drug prevents storage of NT in vesicles (so NT leak out of terminal and cannot be released when needed)

A

Antagonist

>Reserpine

74
Q

Drug stimulates release of NT in vesicles

A

Agonist

>Latrotoxin

75
Q

Drug inhibits release of NT

A

Antagonist

>Botulinum toxin (botox)

76
Q

Drug stimulates postsynaptic preceptors

A

Agonist

>Nicotine

77
Q

Drug blocks postsynaptic receptors

A

Antagonist

>Atropine

78
Q

Drug stimulates autoreceptor action

A

Antagonist

>Apomorphine

79
Q

Drug blocks autoreceptor action

A

Agonist

>Clonidine

80
Q

Drug blocks reuptake of NT in synapse

A

Agonist

>Cocaine

81
Q

Drug inactivates acetylcholinesterase

A

Agonist

>Physostigmine

82
Q

6 ways of taking nervous system agents

A
  • Oral route (most convenient, safest)
  • Direct injection into brain (most direct and fastest)
  • Intramuscular injection (slowest)
  • Inhalation (fewer “barriers” on way to brain)
  • Transdermal (patch)
  • Intravenous injection (fastest practical way)
83
Q

What is the blood brain barrier?

A

The feet of astrocytes wrap around the endothelial cells of the capillaries to block any holes between them. They allow only small, non-ionized molecules to pass through the wall. It protects the brain with its selective permeability

84
Q

3 regions of the brain without a blood brain barrier

A
  1. Pituitary Gland - must be able to receive and send out hormones
  2. Area Postrema - region that triggers vomiting in response to blood-borne toxins
  3. Pineal Gland - affected by cycling hormones
85
Q

5 Classes of Psychoactive Drugs

A
  1. Anxiolytics (Benzodiazepine)
  2. Euphoriants (MDMA)
  3. Stimulants (caffeine)
  4. Depressants (Barbiturates)
  5. Hallucinogens (LSD)
86
Q

6 Steps of Hormone Signalling

A
  1. Making hormone
  2. Storage and secretion
  3. Transport to target cell
  4. Recognition of hormone by target cell
  5. Signal transduction cascade
  6. Breakdown hormone
87
Q

What are the differences between neurotransmitters and hormones

A
  • Hormones can signal over longer distances and longer time scales
  • Hormones travel all over whereas NT are targeted
  • Neural signals are much faster (milliseconds) hormones are much slower (seconds, minutes, hours)
  • Neurotransmitters is “all or nothing” whereas hormone signalling is continuously variable and dependent on concentration
88
Q

2 types of hormones

A

Steroid - fat soluble and synthesizes from cholesterol, can enter target cells directly
Peptide - Bind to metabolic receptors on the cell generating a 2nd messenger

89
Q

Hormone Functions (3)

A

Homeostasis
Reproduction
Stress (Glucocorticoids)

90
Q

SAME DAVE

A 
Sensory = Afferent 
Motor = Efferent 
Distal = Afferent 
Ventral = Efferent
91
Q

Sensory receptors are _____

A

Specific

> They only respond to certain types of mechanical, chemical or electromagnetic energy

92
Q

True or false, all sensory signals end up in the cerebral cortex

A

False

93
Q

Transduction

A

Energy that ultimately results in neural signalling

94
Q

Receptive Field

A

A specific part of the world (or body) to which a sensory receptor responds (a spatial location)

95
Q

Cortical Magnification Factor

A

The amount of cortex that is dedicated to a body part related to the sensitivity of the body part, NOT its actual size

96
Q

Adaptation

A

The change over time of the responsiveness of the sensory system to a constant stimulus

97
Q

Sustained Response

A

Neural response to stimulus remains constant as long as a stimulus is present

98
Q

Transient Response

A

Only responds to a change in the stimulus (when a stimulus begins, ends, or otherwise changes)

99
Q

Exteroceptive receptors

A

Receptors that respond to external stimuli (like skin or eyes)

100
Q

Interoceptive Receptors

A

Receptors that respond to bodily stimuli (like in gut)

Help interpret meaning of external stimuli

101
Q

Is it the number or density of receptors that determines sensitivity?

A

Density determines sensitivity

102
Q

Neural Relays

A
  • Receptors connect to the cortex through a sequence of intervening neurons
  • Allows sensory systems to interact and produce relevant reactions
103
Q

On Centre Cell

A

The eye cell will produce an action potential when there is stimulation in the middle of its visual field

104
Q

Off Centre Cell

A

The eye cell will become hyperpolarized when there is stimulation in the middle of the visual field

105
Q

How are visual stimuli coded in higher level cortex?

A

The neuron in the cortex will fire most for an stimulus at a certain configuration, and then will fire less for unfavoured configurations

106
Q

Many neurons are Polymodal, what does that mean?

A

Their receptive fields are sensitive to more than one type of sensory stimulus (live both sound an light)

107
Q

Each sensory system projects to where?

A

The cerebral cortex to its primary cortex

108
Q

What do secondary areas do?

A

They get information from the primary cortex and perform specific aspects of the sensory modality

109
Q

What are the 4 major somatosensory submodalities?

A
  1. Nocioception
  2. Hapsis
  3. Proprioception
  4. Balance
110
Q

Nocioception

A

Perception of unplesant stimuli

> pain and temperature

111
Q

Hapsis

A

Perception of objects using fine touch and pressure (object recognition through touch)

112
Q

Proprioception

A

Sense of your body in space

113
Q

What are the 2 major somatosensory pathways?

A 
Dorsal Tract (Hapsis and Proprioception) 
Ventral Tract (Nocioception)

Human Neuropsychology 1 (3 decks)

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