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Botany > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the fundamentals properties of life in plants?

A
  1. The organization of structure and composition (cells)
  2. Ability to grow and develop
  3. Its ability to reproduce (needs to be matured)
  4. Ability to respond to environments (adaptations like defense mechanisms)
  5. Ability to undergo metabolic processes like photosynthesis
  6. Ability to evolve and adapt (change over time)
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2
Q

What do all land plants share?

A

Alternation between generations

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3
Q

What is different between the prokaryotic kingdom and eukaryotic one?

A

Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane covered organelles, while eukaryotes have this feature. In addition ALL prokaryotes are single celled while eukaryotes are a mix.

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4
Q

How many divisions are there in the Kingdom Plantae?

A

12

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5
Q

What are the organ systems of a plant?

A

The shoot and root organ systems

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6
Q

What is a shoot organ system?

A

The plant’s components that are above the surface, including, the stem, leaves, and reproductive parts

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7
Q

What is the root organ system?

A

The plant’s components that are below the surface consisting of the roots and its associated structures.

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8
Q

What are the two types of roots?

A

Main and peripheral

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9
Q

What is the purpose of root hair?

A

To increase surface area in order to allow for better uptake of nutrients and water.

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10
Q

What are the 4 divisions of land plants?

A
  1. Bryophytes (non-vascular plant)
  2. Seedless vascular plants
  3. Seed-bearing plants (gymnosperms)
  4. Seed-bearing plants (angiosperms)
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11
Q

What are the main types of bryophytes?

A

Moss

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12
Q

Why are mosses low to the ground?

A

They lack a vascular system

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13
Q

What is a vascular system?

A

Transportation of nutrients across organism

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14
Q

What is the main type of seedless vascular plants?

A

Ferns

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15
Q

What are the main type of seed-bearing vascular gymnosperm plants?

A

Conifer plants (produce cones)

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16
Q

What are the main type of seed-bearing vascular angiosperm plants?

A

Fruit plants

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17
Q

What do all the four divisions of land plants have in common?

A

Are embryophyte

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18
Q

What is an embryophyte?

A

Embryo within the female reproductive structure

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19
Q

What is the difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms?

A

Gymnosperms are naked seeds, thus no protective coating while angiosperms have a protective covering (fruit).

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20
Q

How do aquatic plants differ from land ones?

A

Don’t have an embryophyte
ex. green algae

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21
Q

Explain alternation of generations

A

Life cycle of alternating diploid sporophyte phase and haploid gametophyte phase

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22
Q

What is the difference between a sporophyte and gametophyte?

A

Sporophytes produce spores and exist as 2n while gametophytes produce gametes and exist as n.

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23
Q

What do sporophytes produce?

A

Sporangeium

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24
Q

What occurs in a sporangeium?

A

Meiosis

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25
Q

What is a female gametophyte in a bryophyte?

A

An archegonium (where the egg is)

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26
Q

What is a male gametophyte in a bryophyte?

A

An antheridium (where the sperm is)

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27
Q

What do bryophytes do to gain nutrients?

A

As mosses don’t have a vascular system, there are low lying where they absorb any nutrients that are close to the ground.

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28
Q

What moss to the touch, is its gametophyte form?

A

Spongy moss

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29
Q

What part of the moss is its sporophyte part?

A

The capsule at the top (meiosis takes place to release spores here)

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30
Q

Do the spores of bryophytes have to form a specific gametophyte?

A

Nope, either form a male or female

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31
Q

Heterosporous

A

Produces two kinds of spores

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32
Q

Homosporous

A

Produce one kind of spore

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33
Q

What type of spore can bryophytes be?

A

Either hetero or homosporous

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34
Q

Why must bryophytes be drought tolerant?

A

They don’t have a vascular system that can move their nutrients everywhere, so most of their life cycle occurs in dry environments

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35
Q

What anchors bryophytes?

A

Rhizoids (their “roots”)

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36
Q

Where are spores produced in mosses?

A

Gametophyte capsules

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37
Q

What is the importance of mosses?

A

Enable other plants to grow as they keep conditions around moist and maintain moist soil (are the first plants to grow; rocks).

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38
Q

What transports water in fern?

A

Xylem

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39
Q

What transports sugar and other material in ferns?

A

Phloem

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40
Q

Fronds

A

Leaf-like part of ferns

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41
Q

Where do fronds come from?

A

A horizontal underground stem known as a rhizome

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42
Q

Rhizome

A

A horizontal underground stem that store starch and protein and allow them to grow underground

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43
Q

Where do roots arise from?

A

The rhizome system

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44
Q

Where does a sorus exist?

A

The underside of a frond (round)

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45
Q

What does a sorus do?

A

Spores form here

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46
Q

How do spores grow on a sorus?

A

Meiosis takes place once the spores take place in a sorus, mature, then are released from a circle thing

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47
Q

What are the gametophytes of ferns?

A

Prothallus

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48
Q

What happens if a gametophyte of a fern forms on the ground?

A

An archegonium and antheridium will form (moss ones)

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49
Q

How can gametophytes on the ground fertilize?

A

The sperm has flagella, so it moisture can allow it to travel to the archegonium

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50
Q

How does a mature sporophyte differ from a young one of a fern?

A

A mature sporophyte doesn’t have a gametophyte attached while a young sporophyte in a fern has one attached

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51
Q

What types of spores do ferns produce?

A

Homosporous

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52
Q

Since a fern produces homosporous spores, how do their gametophytes look like?

A

Both female and male parts

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53
Q

Phytoremediation

A

Use of plants to remove toxic waste from the environment like pesticides, oils, etc. (work good when low)

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54
Q

What plants are used in phytoremediation?

A

Ferns

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55
Q

What areas do ferns grow in?

A

Moist areas, like the undergrowth of a forest

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56
Q

Where are the seeds from in conifers?

A

Inside the cones

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57
Q

How are the mature seeds released from the cones?

A

Must open up

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58
Q

What are the three types of conifers?

A
  1. Pine
  2. Cedar
  3. Spruce
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59
Q

What do the cones look like in pine trees?

A

Open cones

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60
Q

How do cones exist in cedar trees?

A

In clusters with needles one on top of the other (scaling)

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61
Q

How do cones exist in spruce trees?

A

Less open than pine cones are are very delicate where if you pull a needle, a piece of bark will fall off too

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62
Q

In a pine tree’s life cycle, what stage is more dominant?

A

Sporophyte cycle

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63
Q

Where does the haploid cycle exist in pine trees?

A

Inside the cone

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64
Q

What do female gametophytes in pine trees exist as?

A

Egg cells

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65
Q

What do male gametophytes in pine trees exist as?

A

Pollen

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66
Q

What are ovules in pine trees?

A

Where the egg forms when ovulation takes place

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67
Q

Mega spores

A

Female spores in pine trees

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68
Q

Micro spores

A

Male spores in pine trees

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69
Q

How many mega spores are produce in meiosis in pine trees?

A

4

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70
Q

What happens once the spores in pine trees mature?

A

Produce cones

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71
Q

What’s difference in the position between female and male cones in pine trees?

A

Female cones are farther up the tree while male cones are farther down the tree

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72
Q

What happens once the sperm of the pollen grain gets inside the female cone?

A

It fertilizes the egg

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73
Q

How many megaspores produce egg cells? How many egg cells?

A

One of the four megaspores produce 2 egg cells

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74
Q

What type of spores do conifers produce?

A

Heterosporous spores

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75
Q

Where does a female gametophyte exist in a pine tree?

A

Inside the cone

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76
Q

Where does a male gametophyte exist in a pine tree?

A

Inside a pollen cone

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77
Q

Explain the sporophyte process in a pine tree.

A

Fertilization of a egg from a sperm of a pollen grain where the zygote forms an embryo within a female cone; cell division to lead to differentiation where it leads to a seedlings that forms into a tree

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78
Q

What is the usual form of a male gametophyte in an angiosperm?

A

Pollen

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79
Q

Where do sepals exist?

A

Below the petals on the outer parts of the flower

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80
Q

What is the purpose of the sepals?

A

Enclose the bud at the beginning of the season

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81
Q

What happens when the sepals open?

A

Out come the petals

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82
Q

What are the rings of stock on the centre of the flower?

A

Male stamen, male reproductive system

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83
Q

What are male stamen made up of?

A

The anther and filament

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84
Q

What is the purpose of the anther?

A

To release and make pollen grains

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85
Q

What do filaments do?

A

Keep the anthers up high

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86
Q

What is in the centre of angiosperms; the flower?

A

The carpel, female reproductive system

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87
Q

What does the female reproductive system (carpel) contain?

A

Stigma, style, and ovary

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88
Q

What is the purpose of the stigma?

A

Exists high up and has a sticky substance in which pollen can stick on

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89
Q

When a pollen grain attaches to a style, what happens?

A

Makes a pollen tube that slides down the style and enters the ovary

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90
Q

What is a well known angiosperm plant in Canada?

A

Trillium

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91
Q

What type of spores do angiosperms release?

A

Heterosporous

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92
Q

What are two types of angiosperms?

A

Monocots and dicots

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93
Q

Explain monocot root systems.

A

Fibrous, which are thin, moderately branching roots from the stem

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94
Q

Explain dicot root systems.

A

Taproot, where there is a single, thick main root with several lateral branches

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95
Q

What is a cotyledon?

A

The first leaf-life structures produced when developing

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96
Q

How do monocot leaves look like?

A

Parallel vein leaves

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97
Q

How do dicot leaves look like?

A

Net-like veins on leaves

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98
Q

How do petals exist on monocots?

A

Multiples of threes (lilly, trillium, etc.)

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99
Q

How do petals exist on dicots?

A

Multiples of four or five

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100
Q

How do ovules exist in monocots?

A

Multiples of three ovules in the ovary

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101
Q

How do ovules exist in dicots?

A

One ovule in the ovary

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102
Q

What are paleodicots (basal angiosperms)?

A

Those plants with primitive characteristics that evolved before the divergence of monocots and eudicots

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103
Q

What is the difference between a monocot and dicot?

A

A monocot has one cotyledon and a dicot has two (seed leafs)

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104
Q

What are eudicots?

A

Also known as true dicots (the same thing)

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105
Q

Who is the father of taxonomy?

A

Linnaeus

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106
Q

How are plants grouped together?

A

Evolutionary relationships because of shared morphology and anatomy

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107
Q

How were plants originally classified?

A

Using human sexuality such as marriages and the number of beds

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108
Q

What were the problems associated with Linnaeus’ naming systems?

A

Hard to identify a hybrid and the naming all depends on which characteristic you choose (many)

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109
Q

What is a binomial name?

A

A two part name with the genus (broad) and species (specific to one)

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110
Q

Order the domains in the classification of plants (Linnaeus system).

A

From broad to narrow:
Kingdom –> Division –> Class –> Order –> Family –> Genus –> Species

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111
Q

What is the Linnaeus system based on?

A

Similarities in observable physical traits

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112
Q

Why don’t we use common names for plants?

A

Names can differ from location

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113
Q

What is a clade?

A

A group of organisms with similar traits that are believed to come from a shared recent common ancestor.

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114
Q

Monophyletic

A

Clades on a phylogenetic tree where a group of organisms originate from a shared common ancestor, so they display similar traits.

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115
Q

Why are some common and genus names helpful?

A

Some names describes the physical qualities, use, or location, so that they are easily distinguishable.

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116
Q

How to recognize a family name?

A

All end in -aceae.

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117
Q

What is phylocode?

A

A tree of life designed by reference to phylogeny by using a formal set of rules that govern phylogenetic nomenclature.

118
Q

What is the classification in the phylocode based on?

A

Clades

119
Q

What is the barcode of life?

A

A tool for species identification by sequencing a standard region of DNA.

120
Q

What DNA regions are used for a barcode of life?

A

Short, highly variable regions of the genome

121
Q

What is the tool used in DNA barcoding?

A

PCR, so that DNA can be amplified

122
Q

What specimens can be used for PCR?

A

Small or degraded specimens

123
Q

What 2 genes were used for species identification for DNA barcoding?

A
  1. rbcL
  2. matK
124
Q

What is the rbcL gene used for?

A

A chloroplast gene that codes for a Rubisco large subunit.

125
Q

What is the matK gene used for?

A

A gene that codes for maturase K protein, which splices introns.

126
Q

What gene is used for DNA barcoding in animals?

A

CO1 gene

127
Q

Why isn’t the CO1 gene used in barcoding for plants?

A

This gene evolves slowly in plants, so it doesn’t allow for much differentiation between species.

128
Q

Biological species concept

A

A species is a group of interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other groups, producing viable offspring.

129
Q

Ecological species concept

A

A species is a member of a biological community defined by a set of unique of adaptations to its environment.

130
Q

Genealogical species concept

A

A species is a group of organisms with a distinct genetic history (organism more closely related to others in a group than those on the outside).

131
Q

What does natural selection rely on?

A
  1. Variation
  2. Overpopulation
  3. Competition
  4. Individuals with beneficial traits that will have the greatest reproductive success
132
Q

Can an organism change its trait?

A

No it can’t change its trait as it’s inherited, just not pass it on as it’s not beneficial

133
Q

How does artificial selection relate to natural selection?

A

Humans select for the beneficial trait rather than the environment

134
Q

What are the levels of organization in plants?

A

High to Low:
organism –> organ system –> organ –> tissue system/group –> tissue –> cell

135
Q

What is an organ made of?

A

2 or more different kinds of tissues that are each separately made of similar cells

136
Q

What are the organs in a plant?

A

Root, stem, reproductive structures, and leaf

137
Q

What tissue make up a root?

A

Dermal tissue, ground tissue, and vascular tissue.

138
Q

What is a blade?

A

The flat, extended part of a leaf.

139
Q

What is a petiole?

A

The stalk that attaches the blade to the stem.

140
Q

What makes up a leaf?

A

Blade and petiole

141
Q

What is an axillary bud?

A

New bud for anything like a stem, leaf, fruit, etc.

142
Q

What are stipules?

A

Little thorns

143
Q

What are leaflets?

A

Those not borne on the main stem, so three leaflets equal 1 whole leaf.

144
Q

What are the types of composition for leaves?

A
  1. Simple
  2. Palmately compound
  3. Pinnately compound
145
Q

What is a simple composition for a leaf?

A

A single blade, petiole, axillary bud, and stipules.

146
Q

Do all leaves have petioles?

A

No, as some are directly attached to the stem

147
Q

What is a palmately compound composition for a leaf?

A

Leaflets originate from the center, similar to a palm (near end of petiole)

148
Q

What is a pinnately compound composition for a leaf?

A

Alternating leaflets originating from different locations on a terminal petiole (not the center; along the entire petiole).

149
Q

What are the arrangements of leaves?

A
  1. Alternate
  2. Opposite
  3. Whorled
150
Q

What are the alternate arrangement of leaves?

A

Alternating nodes on opposite sides of a stem or petiole

151
Q

Nodes

A

Area where a bud grows into a leaf

152
Q

Internode

A

Distance between nodes

153
Q

What is the opposite arrangement of leaves?

A

The nodes are located on opposite sides but at at the exact same position

154
Q

What is the whorled arrangement of leaves?

A

There are multiple nodes at one location on the same side, can differ sides as well.

155
Q

What are the types of veins on leaves?

A
  1. Parallel
  2. Net-like
156
Q

What are the different types of carpel?

A

1 carpel vs fused carpel

157
Q

What is one carpel?

A

Only 1 ovule arose from the ovary
ex. pit in cherry

158
Q

What is the fused carpel?

A

Multiple ovulves are in the ovary
ex. each section in a lemon

159
Q

What is the symmetry like in a regular flower?

A

Radial symmetry

160
Q

Radial symmetry

A

Multiple planes

161
Q

What is the symmetry like in an irregular flower?

A

Bilateral symmetry

162
Q

Bilateral symmetry

A

One plane

163
Q

Superior ovary

A

The stamen is underneath the ovary

164
Q

Inferior ovary

A

The stamen in on top of the ovary (attached at the top)

165
Q

What is the purpose of the potato experiment?

A

Demonstrates the tonicity (water movement) of plant cells as those in the salt water turn floppy (water moves out of cell) and tap water (water comes in to make it firm)

166
Q

What are the three tissue systems in plants?

A
  1. Dermal
  2. Ground
  3. Vascular
167
Q

What makes up the dermal tissue?

A

Epidermis and periderm

168
Q

What is the purpose of the epidermis?

A

The protective outside covering of plants that prevents water from evaporating due to its cells being tightly packed.

169
Q

What makes up the ground tissue?

A

Parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.

170
Q

What makes up the parenchyma?

A

Mesophyll cells and the cortex

171
Q

What do mesophyll cells do ?

A

Contain chloroplasts that help with photosynthesis.

172
Q

Where are most mesophyll tissue located?

A

In leaves due to its green colour (photosynthesis).

173
Q

What does the cortex and pith cells do in the stem (ground tissue)?

A

Support and storage

174
Q

What is the difference in the location between the cortex and pith?

A

The cortex is located between the vascular tissue along the outside while the pith in inside the vascular tissue.

175
Q

What makes up the periderm?

A

Cork cells

176
Q

What is located in the lower epidermis?

A

The stoma

177
Q

What does the stoma do?

A

Good for water release and CO2 uptake.

178
Q

What surrounds the stoma? Purpose?

A

Guard cells on each side which control the size of the stoma (open and closing).

179
Q

What does the endodermis do (ground tissue)? Location?

A

Located in roots and helps to anchor plants/allow for sturdiness.

180
Q

What vascular tissue makes up a vein?

A

Xylem and phloem.

181
Q

What makes up xylem?

A

Tracheids and/or vessel elements, fibers, and parenchyma.

182
Q

What makes up phloem?

A

Sieve tube members AND companion cells, fibers, and parenchyma.

183
Q

What is the makeup of a parenchyma tissue?

A

Primary cell wall, which is thin and a pit.

184
Q

What are pits and their function?

A

There are tiny holes in the cell wall that allow for communication between neighbouring cells.

185
Q

What is the makeup of a collenchyma cell?

A

Primary cell wall, thick, and a pit.

186
Q

How do cells in the parenchyma appear (shape)?

A

Circles

187
Q

How do cells in the collenchyma appear (shape)?

A

Long and more tubular.

188
Q

What is the purpose of collenchyma cells?

A

Make up the growing parts of plants, so provide flexibility and sturdiness (thick primary cell wall).

189
Q

What makes up a sclerenchyma tissue?

A

Fiber and sclereid cells.

190
Q

What is the purpose of sclerenchyma tissue?

A

Provide support and mechanical protection due to secondary cell wall (inflexible).

191
Q

What makes up a fiber cell?

A

Pits, secondary and primary cell wall, and lignin.

192
Q

What is the shape of a fiber cell?

A

Elongated, stringy tubes.

193
Q

What is the make up of a sclereid cell?

A

Primary and secondary cell wall, pits, and lignin.

194
Q

What is the shape of sclereid cells?

A

Circular.

195
Q

What happens to the tracheids and vessel elements when they mature?

A

After maturity, they die and hollow out, thus allowing water to flow easily.

196
Q

What is the makeup of tracheids?

A

Long, thin cells with tapering and pointed ends. Many pits are throughout them.

197
Q

What is the makeup of vessel elements?

A

Wider and shorter cells that stack up on one another. Pits throughout as well.

198
Q

What is the advantage of vessel elements? Disadvantage?

A

More water flows because of the wide diameter; however, if one is blocked, water can’t flow as they are all stacked one on top of the other.

199
Q

What is the makeup of a sieve tube member?

A

Multiple tubular cells with a sieve plate between that contains large pores.

200
Q

What is the purpose of sieve tub members/plates?

A

Nutrients travel here

201
Q

What does the companion cell? do

A

Attached to sieve tube member and allows materials from other cells to enter the sieve and leaves it to enter other cells.

202
Q

What is the purpose of a central vacuole?

A

Waste collection and water/pigment storage.

203
Q

What makes up the primary cell wall?

A

Cellulose

204
Q

What makes up the secondary cell wall?

A

Lignin

205
Q

What connects two neighboring cells and their primary cell walls?

A

Middle lamella (a sticky substance).

206
Q

What is the purpose of plasmodesmata?

A

Connects neighbouring cytoplasm so that passageways can occur (movement of materials).

207
Q

How does the layers of the phospholipid bilayer compare?

A

A fluid mosaic model where both sides consist of different integral and peripheral proteins.

208
Q

Do all materials pass through the phospholipid bilayer?

A

No, it’s semi/selectively/differentially permeable, so ONLY some things can pass through whereas others don’t.

209
Q

Tonicity

A

Water movement (high to low areas)

210
Q

Isotonic

A

Same water concentration on both sides of the cell, so there is an equal amount moving in and out.

211
Q

Hypotonic

A

There is a greater water concentration outside of the cell, so therefore water moves into it (more).

212
Q

Hypertonic

A

There is a greater water concentration inside of the cell, so therefore lots of water leaves he cell than water that enters.

213
Q

Will plants cells burst in hypotonic conditions?

A

No, because the cell wall is rigid there is just more pressure.

214
Q

What is a hypotonic plant cell called?

A

Turgid cell because it’s tough and deals with a lot of pressure.

215
Q

What happens when a plant cell goes through hypertonic conditions?

A

Can become plasmolyzed (shrinks) where the cell membrane separates from the cell wall, thus resulting in death.

216
Q

What are the three important physiological processes for plant life?

A
  1. Transport of water into and through a plant; and of sugars through a plant
  2. Photosynthesis
  3. Cellular respiration
217
Q

What are the three substances required by plants?

A

CO2, O2, and water

218
Q

Photosynthesis

A

The use of carbon and water with the addition of light to create glucose (food) and oxygen

219
Q

Cellular respiration

A

The use of glucose and oxygen to make carbon dioxide, water, and ATP (energy)

220
Q

How does water enter a plant?

A

Water and its dissolved minerals enter through the roots.

221
Q

How does oxygen enter a plant?

A

Through the roots

222
Q

How does carbon dioxide enter a plant?

A

Through the leaves

223
Q

How does sugar leave a plant?

A

Either through roots or leaves

224
Q

How does sugar enter a plant?

A

Leaves

225
Q

How does oxygen leave a plant?

A

Leaves

226
Q

How does carbon dioxide leave a plant?

A

Through the roots

227
Q

How does water leave the plant?

A

Stays in leaves where it can be absorbed by the sun (dried out).

228
Q

Transpiration

A

A process that involves the loss of water through the stomata of plants.

229
Q

How does water reach the xylem?

A

H20 is absorbed by the roots through dermal tissue and then ground tissue until it gets to the vascular tissue cylinder.

230
Q

What does water have to go against as it moves up the stem in the xylem?

A

Gravity, as it moves up.

231
Q

What is the endodermis?

A

Inner layer of the cortex

232
Q

Explain the structure of the endodermis.

A

One layer of tightly packed cells with a waxy suberin that lines the cells on 4 sides.

233
Q

What can pass through the waxy suberin/Casparian strip?

A

Nothing can pass through it, specifically water

234
Q

How can water pass through the endodermis?

A

Avoids the Casparian strip and passes through the endodermal cell (selectively permeable).

235
Q

What are the routes water takes to the xylem?

A
  1. Apoplastic route
  2. Symplastic route
236
Q

Apoplastic route

A

The route of water from the roots to the xylem consisting of moving on the outside of the cytoplasm either within cell walls and intercellular spaces.

237
Q

Symplastic route

A

The route of water from the roots to the xylem consisting within the cytoplasm of the cortex through plasmodesmata.

238
Q

How do guard cells open the stomata?

A

Lots of water enter the guard cells causing them to bend in the center, thus increasing the diameter of the stoma and more water can diffuse out.

239
Q

What are guard cells called when water enters them?

A

Turgid

240
Q

How do guard cells close the stomata?

A

Less water, so they leave the guard cells causing them to move closer together (centers), thus decreasing the diameter of water and reducing the amount of water that leaves the plant.

241
Q

What are guard cells called when water leaves them?

A

Flaccid

242
Q

What is the transpiration-cohesion theory?

A

Transpiration increases tension of neighbouring water molecules, pulling the rest up, but it’s due to its cohesive ability that this can occur.

243
Q

Explain cohesion in water molecules.

A

It’s ability for it to form bonds with other water molecules through hydrogen bonding thus forming long columns in the xylem.

244
Q

Explain adhesion in water molecules.

A

It’s ability to form bonds with non-water molecules, like the cell walls in xylem.

245
Q

What is the importance of adhesion?

A

Prevents the whole chain from falling back down.

246
Q

How does water flow through tracheids?

A

Water flows vertically and laterally through pits (end of each cell).

247
Q

How does water flow through the vessel elements?

A

Short, vertical water flow through the perforated and open ends.

248
Q

How does water flow through the pits of vessel elements?

A

Laterally

249
Q

How does sugar flow through an angiosperm?

A

From the source to the sink.

250
Q

Source

A

The location that supplies sugar molecules for transport or release them for their storage supply.

251
Q

Sink

A

The location of low concentration of sugar that needs it for metabolic processes.

252
Q

How do sieve tube members differ from the components of xylem?

A

There are alive and move nutrients rather than water.

253
Q

How does sugar get out of the source into sieve tube members?

A

Through active transport by the plasmodesmata.

254
Q

How does sugar get out of the sieve tube member to the sink?

A

Through active transport by the plasmodesmata.

255
Q

What is the pressure flow hypothesis?

A

Sugar concentrations in the sieve tube members cause water from the xylem to move into the member as well, thus an increase in pressure and mass flow of both molecules to lower concentrations.

256
Q

What happens to water in the sieve tube members when sugar reaches the sink?

A

The sugar concentration decreases in the last sieve tube member where it causes the water to move out of the member into nearby cells or xylem.

257
Q

Active transport

A

Molecules move from lower concentration to higher concentrations by a gradient or protein that expends energy.

258
Q

What is the difference between the vascular cylinder in dicot and monocot roots?

A

Dicot roots have a cross section of xylem while the monocot root has the xylem arranged in circular bundles

259
Q

What does a monocot root have that a dicot root doesn’t?

A

A pith

260
Q

What does the endodermis surround?

A

The vascular cylinder

261
Q

What does dicot stem have that a monocot stem doesn’t?

A

A pith

262
Q

How are vascular bundles arranged in a monocot stem?

A

In bundles scattered throughout

263
Q

How are vascular bundles arranged in a dicot stem?

A

Surround the stem in a circle near the outside

264
Q

What exists between phloem and xylem in a dicot stem?

A

Vascular cambium

265
Q

Where does xylem exist in reference to the phloem?

A

Towards the center (inside of the phloem)

266
Q

Where does the phloem exist in reference to the xyelm?

A

Towards the outside of the cell (above xylem)

267
Q

How does the xylem and phloem exist in a dicot leaf?

A

Branching to give net-like veins (a central vein)

268
Q

How does the xylem and phloem exist in a monocot leaf?

A

A parallel vein formed by the vascular bundles existing in a coordinated line

269
Q

Where does primary growth occur?

A

In the apical meristem, specifically dermal, ground, and vascular tissue (specifically primary xylem and phloem)

270
Q

Where does secondary growth occur?

A

In the lateral meristem, the cork and vascular cambium (specifically secondary xylem and phloem).

271
Q

What is primary growth?

A

Growing upwards in height or downwards by deepening roots.

272
Q

What is secondary growth?

A

Wider in circumference (girth)

273
Q

What occurs in a meristem?

A

Active cell division

274
Q

Where are apical meristems located?

A

At the tip, so terminal buds or in root tips.

275
Q

Why doesn’t the apical meristem exist at the very end of the root?

A

Since the soil is abrasive, it would wear away the delicate, dividing cells, thus damaging any growth.

276
Q

What protects the apical meristem in roots?

A

A root cap

277
Q

List the structures that grow in primary stage (in order of each stage).

A

Procambium –> protoderm and ground meristem –> epidermis, cortex, pith, primary xylem and phloem

278
Q

What later stage of growth occurs in a dicot plant?

A

Procambium develops into vascular cambium, which turns into secondary xylem and phloem.

279
Q

What are the three zones growth in a root?

A
  1. Zone of cell division
  2. Zone of cell elongation
  3. Zone of maturation
    (young to old)
280
Q

Zone of cell divsion

A

Cells are dividing where a majority occurs in the apical meristem

281
Q

Zone of cell elongation

A

Cells are elongating, so roots deepen and stems grow in height

282
Q

Zone of maturation

A

No more cell elongation or division, so new structures like root hairs can develop

283
Q

Why doesn’t secondary growth occur in monocots?

A

They ONLY live in one season and die off as they don’t have vascular cambium

284
Q

What are examples of dicots?

A

Trees and woody plants as they have secondary growth (survive throughout each season)

285
Q

What growth occurs in dicots during late summer (1st year - secondary)?

A
  1. Vascular cambium divided in secondary xylem and phloem
  2. Secondary xylem becomes wood (moving towards the center)
  3. Secondary phloem converts itself into cork cambium –> becomes cork
286
Q

Cork cambium

A

Single layer of actively dividing cells (alive) that produce cork

287
Q

Why is bark tough?

A

Constantly eroding due to any environments or other conditions

288
Q

What happens in the secondary growth in the second year of later summer?

A
  1. New layers of secondary xylem (alternating from large cells to small cells)
  2. More phloem converted into cork cambium (about the same size still); however, more layers of cork
289
Q

What makes up bark?

A

Secondary phloem, cork cambium, and cork.

290
Q

Why are there alternating layers of large and small cells in the secondary xylem?

A

During early summer, there are lots of water so vessel elements are large to combat the transport of water; however, as the end of summer nears, there is less water, so these elements hollow out, die and shrink (not needed as much).

291
Q

What are wood rings?

A

Secondary xylem, specifically the small vessel elements as they are tiny and squashed together to make a compact line.

292
Q

What structures lengthen in primary growth?

A

Terminal buds either though increasing stem length or a flower; axillary buds through branching, leaves, or flowers; and root tips by deepening in the soil.

Botany (3 decks)

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