Midterm 1 Flashcards
Homeostasis
o Maintaining the internal environment within physiological limits
o Continually being disrupted by
External stimuli ( heat or cold, lack of O2)
Internal stimuli (psychological stress, exercise)
Physiology
o Function
o Normal adult physiology studied in this text
o Some genetic variations described
Anatomy
o Structure
o Relationships revealed by dissection
o Imaging techniques
Levels of organization
- Chemical: atoms, molecules
- Cells: basic structural and function units
- Tissues: groups of similarly specialized cells and the substances surrounding them
- Organs: structures of definite form that are composed of 2 or more tissues and have specific functions
- Organ systems: related organs that have a common function
- The human organism: a collection of structurally and functionally integrated systems; any living individual
Integumentary system
o External body covering, protects deeper tissues from injury, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous receptors (pain, pressure, etc. , receptors, sweat and oil glands
o Hair, skin, nails
Skeletal system
o Protects and support body organs, provides framework for muscles to move, blood cells formed within bones, mineral storage
o Joint, bones
Muscular system
o Manipulation of environment, locomotion, facial expression, maintains posture, produces heat
o Skeletal muscles
Nervous system
o Control system of body, responds to internal and external changes by activating muscles and glands
o Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Endocrine system
o Glands secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, nutrient use (metabolism)
o Thyroid, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovary, testis, pituitary gland, pineal gland
Cardiovascular system
o Blood vessels transport blood which carry oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste etc. heart pumps blood
o Blood vessels, heart
Lymphatic system
o Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses WBC (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. Immune response mounts attack against foreign substances
o Red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes
Respiratory system
o Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. Gaseous exchange occurs through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
o Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung, bronchus
Digestive system
o Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible food eliminated as feces
o Oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
Urinary system
o Eliminates nitrogenous wastes, regulates water, electrolyte and acid base balance of the blood
o Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
Reproductive system
o Produce offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, male ducts and glands aid delivery of sperm to female reproductive tract
o Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
o Other female structures are sites for fertilization and fetus development. Mammary glands produce milk for newborn
o Male: penis, prostate gland, testis, ductus deferens, scrotum
o Female: mammary glands, ovary, uterus, vagina, uterine tube
Organ system interrelationships
• Example: digestive system takes in nutrients, breaks down, excretes waste. Respiratory system takes in O2 and eliminates Co2. Cardiovascular system distributes O2 and nutrients to body cells, delivers waste to disposal organs. Urinary system eliminates wastes.
Necessary life function
maintain boundaries between internal and external environments
o plasma membranes
o skin
movement (contractility)
o of body parts (skeletal muscle)
o of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
• responsiveness: the ability to sense and respond to stimuli
o withdrawal reflex
o control of breathing rate
digestion
o breakdown of ingested food
o absorption of simple molecules into blood
metabolism
o all chemical reactions that occur in body cells
anabolism and catabolism
excretion o the removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion urea, co2, feces o reproduction cellular division for growth or repair production of offspring o growth increase in size of a body part of organism
Survival needs
nutrients
o chemicals for energy and cell building
o carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins
oxygen
o essential for energy release (ATP production)
water
o most abundant chemical in the body
o site of chemical reactions
normal body temperature
o affects rate of chemical reactions
appropriate atmospheric pressure
o for adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
Components of a control mechanism
receptor (sensor)
o monitors the environment
o responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)
control center (the brain)
o determines point at which variable is maintained
o receives input from receptor
o determines appropriate response
effector
o receives output from control center
o provides the means to respond
o response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)
Negative feedback vs positive feedback
Negative feedback
o The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
E.g. body temperature regulation, blood volume regulated by ADH
Positive feedback
o The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
o May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
o Usually controls infrequent events
Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
directions and orientations
o Distal, proximal o Right, left o Midline o Medial, lateral o Anterior, posterior o Superior, inferior o Superficial, deep
Sagittal
Divides body vertically into right and left
Midsagittal
Lies on midline
Parasagittal
Not on midline
Frontal (coronal)
Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior
Transverse (horizontal)
Divides body horizontally into superior and inferior parts
Produces a cross section
Oblique
Cuts made diagonally
Cranial cavity
• Contains brain
Vertebral cavity
• Contains spinal cord
o Thoracic cavity
Contains lungs and heart
Superior mediastinum (above heart)
Pleural (lungs)
Pericardial (around heart, within mediastinum)
o Abdominal cavity
Contains digestive viscera
o Pelvic cavity
Urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum
o Ventral cavities
thoracic and abdominopelvic
• Body regions
Axial – head, neck, trunk
Appendicular – limbs
cephalic
head
frontal
forehead
orbital
eye
nasal
nose
mental
mouth
cervical
neck
thoracic region
chest area:
- axillary (armpit)
- mammary (breast)
- sternal (sternum)
umblical
belly button (in abdominal cavity)
pubic
genital
acromial
shoulder (upper limb region)
brachial
arm (upper limb region)
antecubital
elbow pit (upper limb region)
antebrachial
forearm (upper limb region)
carpal
wrist (upper limb region)
manus
hand
palmar
palm (manus region)
pollex
thumb (manus region)
digital
fingers (manus region)
coxal
hip (lower limb region)
femoral
thigh (lower limb region)
patellar
knee (lower limb region)
crural
leg/shin (lower limb region)
fibular/peroneal
outer leg (lower limb region)
pedal
foot
tarsal
ankle (pedal)
metatarsal
top of food (pedal)
digital
toes (pedal)
hallux
big toe (pedal)
olecranial
elbow
metacarpal
top of hand (manus)
popliteal
knee pit (lower limb)
sural
calf (lower limb)
calcaneal
heel
plantar
sole of foot
cervical
neck
scapular
upper sides of back
vertebral
vertebrae
lumbar
lower sides of back
sacral
center lower back above butt
gluteal
butt cheeks
perineal
between anus and external genitalia
serous membrane
- Thin double layered membrane separated by serous fluid
- Parietal serosa lines internal body walls
- Visceral serosa covers internal organs
matter
anything that occupies space and has mass
energy
– the capacity to do work
o Types
Kinetic – motion
Potential – stored
o Forms Chemical (stored in food) Electrical (nerve impulses) Mechanical (muscle contraction) Electromagnetic (light energy for vision
• Chemistry
o The science of the structure and interactions of matter
weight vs mass
• Weight
o the force of gravity acting on a mass
• Mass
o the amount of matter a substance contains
Valence Shells
- 1st shell holds 2 electrons
- 2nd shell holds 8 electrons
- 3rd shell holds 18 electrons
- All shells usually have 8 electrons in valence shell
Different types of bonding
• Ionic bonds
o are relatively weak (e.g. easily broken apart by water
o Electrons donated or accepted
• Covalent bonds
o Strong type of bond
o Electrons are shared
• Hydrogen bonds
o Partial positive and partial negative charge makes molecules attracted to each other: polarity (unequal sharing of electrons
o Covalent bonds between atoms within a water molecule
o Relatively weak
o Hydrogen bonds between molecules
• Water
o Prevents sudden temp change o Removes heat in perspiration o Dissolves many chemicals o Breaks down food o Cushioning
Chemical reactions
formation or breaking of bonds between atoms; involves energy
o Synthesis reactions- smaller particles bond together to form larger molecules
Synthetase puts together glucose to form glycogen (probably on exam)
o Decomposition reactions – bonds are broken in larger molecules, resulting in smaller, less complex molecules
o Exchange reactions – bonds are made and broken
ATP transfers phosphate group to glucose
• Chemical energy
energy stored in bonds of molecules
organic compounds
• Organic molecules need to contain carbon o Proteins o Carbohydrates o Fats o Nucleic acids
Acids vs bases vs salts
o Acids dissociate into H+ and 1 or more anion
o Bases dissociate into OH- and 1 or more cation (proton acceptor)
o Salts dissociate into anions and cations that are not H+ or OH-
• Proteins
o C H N O
o peptide bonds between amino acids (don’t worry about specifics)
o Synthetase puts together glucose to form glycogen (probably on exam)
o Substrates are reusable
o Sensitive to pH and high temperature
o Proteins can be denatured by heat, acd, salt
Changes the protein’s 3D shape
• Enzymes
o Substrates are molecules that are being acted on by the enzyme
o Active site is where the enzyme bonds to on the substrate
• Nucleic acids- stores genetic information
o Polymers are DNA and RNA
o C H N O P
o 5 carbon sugar - deoxyribose (H) or ribose (OH)
o A chromosome is 1 long DNA molecule
o Central dogma: DNA -> RNA -> protein
o ATP - energetic currency for the cell
High energy phosphate bonds hydrolyzed to release energy
• Lipids
o Mostly c chain with H side group o Used for energy, structural support, messengers o Non polar o Monomer – fatty acid o Polymer – fats (triglycerides) o Phospholipids – cell mebrane o Steroid – hormones, cholesterol
• Carbohydrates
o C chain with H and OH side groups
o Used for energy and structural support
o Monomer -monosaccharides ( glucose, fructose)
o Polymer - polysacharrides
• 3 parts of a cell
o Plasma membrane o Cytoplasm Cytosol Organelles (except for nucleus) Nucleus
• Organelles
o Mitochondria Makes ATP o Smooth ER Lipid synthesis o Rough ER Protein synthesis o Golgi apparatus “Post office” Takes vesicles from rough ER, golgi apparatus distributes proteins via secretary vesicles o Lysosomes Garbage disposal/detoxification
•Membrane lipids
Phospholipid bilayer
Hydrophilic heads
Hydrophobic tails
o Membrane proteins
Receptors (e.g. neurotransmitters, hormones)
Channels - allows things to get through
o semi permeable plasma membrane
Cannot pass Large polar (hydrophilic) Charged Can pass Small gasses Nonpolar (hydrophobic) Small polar (water) Passive diffusion Carrier mediated - specific to a chemical Channel mediated, mostly ions based on size and charge Osmosis- water transport - aquaporins Simple diffusion - fat soluble molecules diffuse through phospholipid bilayer
o Tonicity
Crenation is shriveling in hypertonic solution
hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic
• Active transport
o example: Sodium - glucose co transport
• Cytoskeletal organelles
network of rods in cytosol that provide support for cellular structure
o Microtubules are largest, microfilaments are smallest, intermediate filaments in the middle
o Microfilaments
Actic subunit - movement
o Intermediate filaments - structural, tough protein fibers, help form shape of cell
o Microtubules- transport things within a cell
cellular extensions
protruding parts of cell used for motility or to increase surface area
o Cilia - hairlike projections that move mucus
o Microvilli - increases surface area of cell to increase absorption, often in small intestine
o Flagellum - tail used to move cell (e.g. sperm)
membrane junctions
o Tight junctions
Prevent things from going through cells
Important in the blood brain barrier - prevents things from going from your blood to your brain
o Desmosome
Adhesions that bind cells together
o Gap junctions
Allows for flow of ions to go from one cell to the next
• Nucleus
o Next to the rough ER
o Homologous chromosomes are chromosome pairs
o Diploid has a full set of chromosomes
o Haploid has 1 set of chromosome from each pair
• Nucleus function
o Transcription happens in nucleus
o DNA has instructions for gene which codes from specific protein
o Central dogma
DNA -> RNA -> protein
interphase
G1: growth
S: growth and DNA synthesis/replication
G2: growth and final preparation for division
(cell is usually in interphase)
enzymes for DNA replication
o DNA helicase unzips chromosome and exposes bases
o DNA polymerases add complementary bases to build new DNA strange, They can only go one direction
leading vs lagging strang
o Leading strand is continuous
o Lagging strand is fragmented (akazaki fragments)
o On the top the dna polymerase is going from right to left and following helicase in same direction
semiconservative replication
1 strand thats new and 1 thats old
o Main points about DNA replication
It’s in the S phase
Know the enzymes (helicase and DNA polymerase)
Leading strand is continuous
Lagging strand is fragmented
It’s a semiconservative replication which means 1 old and 1 new
No uracils
Coding vs template strand
Coding DNA is the same as mRNA, template DNA is complementary to mRNA
prophase
chromosome s become visible, 2 chromatids joined at a centromere (center portion of chromosome)
Centrosomes separate and migrate towards opposite poles
Mitotic spindles and asters form
Spindles attach to centromeres, the spindles are called kinetochore microtubles
Metaphase
Centromeres of chromosomes are aligned at equator
nuclear envelope disintegrates, it disappeared in prophase
Midway plane is called the metaphase plate
anaphase
Pulling apart
Centromeres of chromosomes split simultaneously, each chromatid becomes a chromosome\
Chromosomes are pulled towards poles by motor proteins of kinetochores
telophase
The two sets of chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin
New nuclear membrane forms around each chromatin mass
Nucleoli reappear
Spindle disappears
cytokinesis
(already started in late anaphase)
Cell divides
2 daughter cells are pinched apart, each containing a nucleus identical to the original
transcription
DNA to mRNA
translation
mRNA to polypeptide
3 types of RNA
mRNA
Carries instructions for building polypeptide, from gene in DNA to ribosomes in cytoplasm
rRNA
A structural component of ribosomes that along with rRNA helps translate message from mRNA
tRNA
Binds amino acids and pair with bases of codons of MRNA at ribosome to begin process of protein synthesis
o Introns vs exons
Introns get cut out and exons get expressed in mRNA
transcription steps
genes are transcribed into RNA in nucleus
RNA polymerase
Unzips DNA and makes mRNA at the same time
Uses template strand of DNA to make mRNA
mRNA is complementary to template strand and identical to coding strand
RNA is intermediate between DNA and protein
RNA is copy of coding strand
Different genes are expressed in different cells (muscle vs bone)
translation steps
Initiator tRNA Start codon on mRNA AUG Functional ribosome is formed Initiator tRNA fits into Psite on rRNA Anticodon of tRNA matches codons of mRNA Ribosome moves along an mRNA strand as amino acids are joined to form a growing polypeptide Stop codon on mRNA (UGA, UAG, UAA) Triplets on DNA Codons are on mRNA Anticodon on tRNA
4 types of tissue
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
epithelial tissue function
o Protection, filtration, lubrication, secretion, digestion, absorption, transport, excretion, sensory reception (to a degree- houses nervous system tissue), reproduction
types of epithelial cells
o Squamous
Flat, good for moving nutrients or substances, not good for making/secreting substances b/c it’s flat and can’t house many organelles
o Cuboidal
More rounded/cube shape, intermediate between columnar and squamous
o Columnar
Can house more organelles, make proteins, etc.
general features of epithelial tissue
o Closely packed, many cell junctions, little ECM
o Sits on a basement membrane
Apical (top) free surface
Basal surface against basal membrane
o Avascular
Nutrients and waste must move by diffusion
Usually connective tissue layer next to epithelial that’s vascularized
o Good nerve supply
o Rapid cell division
simple (single layer) epithelia
Good for absorption, less protective
o Stratified (multiple layers) epithelia
Good for protection
o Simple squamous epithelia
Structure: single layer of flat cells, sparse cytoplasm
Function: materials can diffuse/filter, secrete lubricants
Example: air sacs of lungs
o Simple cuboidal/columnar epithelia
Structure: single layer, cuboidal or tall cells
Function: secrete/absorption, columnar may have cilia
Location: cuboidal: kidney tubules, ducts of small glands, ovary surface; columnar: digestive tract, gall gladder, ciliated bronchi, uterine tubes (columnar is thicker so better protection)
o Pseudostratified columnar epithelia
Structure: single layer with somata at different heights; may be ciliated
Function: secretes and propels mucus (with cilia)
Location: sperm carry ducts, ciliated in trachea, upper respiratory tract
o Stratified squamous epithelia
Structure: thick, several layers; surface cells flat, basal cells columnar
Function: protects anywhere abrasion is possible
Location: moist linings of esophagus, mouth, vagina; hardened form on skin epidermis
transitional epithelia
Structure: stratified squamous/cuboidal
Function: stretches readily
Location: bladder, ureters, part of urethra
endocrine vs exocrine glandular epithelial
o Gland: 1 or more cells that makes and secretes and aqueous fluid. 2 types:
o endocrine
secretes within body – hormones into blood)
ductless - no tubes to transfer fluid out into the surface
secretes hormones that travels through lymph or blood to target organs
o exocrine
secretes substances onto surface (e.g. sweat glands) or into body cavities
secretes products into ducts
types of exocrine glands
o Functional
Merocrine
• Products secreted by exocytosis (pancreas, sweat glands, salivary glands)
Holocrine
• Products secreted by rupture of gland cells
structure of exocrine glands
Simple duct • Single, does not branch • Tubular or alveolar Compound duct • Multiple, does branch • Tubular or alveolar
connective tissue function
o Bind and support, protection, insulation, transport
types of connective tissue
o Bone, blood, connective tissue proper, cartilage
general features of connective tissue
• General features
o Most abundant and widely distributed in body
o Occurs between surfaces
o Highly vascularized (except cartilage and tendons)
o Has a nerve supply (except cartilage)
o Each class has a specific type and extracellular matrix
connective tissue cell types
• Cells (immature vs mature)
Extracellular matrix characteristics
Nonliving, contains ground substance and fibers
ECM ground substance
Unstructured material (fluid, proteins, proteoglycans)
Nutrients etc can diffuse between blood capillaries and cells
ECM fibers
Provides support; 3 types
Collagen (white fibers)
• Strongest and most abundant
• Provides high tensile strength (resists force)
Elastic
• Networks of long thin elastin fibers
• Allows for stretch
Reticular
• Short, fine highly branched collagenous fibers
• Allows the tissue to be hollow so cells (e.g.WBC) can pass through)
hyaline cartilage
o Hyaline
Amorphous but firm matrix, collagen fibers form an imperceptible network; chondroblasts produce the matrix, chondrocytes are in lacunae
Function: supports, reinforces, cushioning, resists compressive stress
Location: covers end of long bones in joint cavities; costal cartilages of ribs, cartilages of nose, trachea, larynx, forms most of embryonic skeleton
elastic cartilage
o Elastic
Similar to hyaline, but more elastic fibers in matrix
Function: maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility
Location: supports external ear (pinna); epiglottis
o Fibrocartilage
Matrix similar but less firm than hyaline; thick collagen fibers mostly
Function: tensile strength with ability to absorb compressive shock
Location: intervertebral discs between vertebrae; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint
Dense irregular connective tissue proper
Dense irregular
Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers, major cell type is fibroblast
Function: able to withstand tension exerted in many directions, provides structural strength
Location: fibrous capsules of organs and joints; example: dermis of skin (KNOW THIS); submucosa of digestive tract
dense regular connective tissue proper
Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers, major cell type is fibroblast
Function: able to withstand tension exerted in many directions, provides structural strength
Location: fibrous capsules of organs and joints; example: dermis of skin; submucosa of digestive tract
o Elastic dense connective tissue proper
High proportion of elastic fibers
Function: allows recoil of tissue after stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries, aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration
Location: walls of large arteries; within certain ligaments associated with the vertebral column; within walls of bronchial tube
areolar: loose connective tissue proper
Gel like matrix, all 3 fiber types
Wraps and cushions organs
Location: widely distributed under epithelia of body
Example: lamina propia - membrane surrounding organs under epithelium
adipose tissue - fat cells loose connective tissue proper
Similar matrix to areolar but sparse; closely packed adipocytes, nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet
Function: provides reserve food fuel, insulates against heat loss, supports and protects organs
Location: under skin in the hypodermis, around kidneys and eyeballs, within abdomen, in breasts
Reticular connective tissue
Network of reticular fibers in a typical loose ground substance; reticular cells lie on the network
Function: fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that supports other cell types including white blood cells, mast cells, macrophages
Location: lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow, spleen)
Bone
o Hard, calcified matrix contains many collagen fibers; osteocytes in lacunae, very vascularized
o Function: support, protect, provide levers for muscles to act on, stores calcium and other minerals and fat, marrow inside bones makes red blood cells (hematopoesis), also makes white blood cells
blood
o Red and white blood cells
o Functions: RBC carries oxygen; WBC defends against foreign invaders
o Location: contained within blood vessels
Nervous tissue features
o Senses, integrates, and controls body functions
o Neurons conduct nerve impulses; typically have specialized processes
o Vascular - with blood vessels
o Is the nerve supply; innervates most parts of the body to sense environment and react to it
o Very little cell division in neurons (low mitotic rate)
nervous tissue cell types and function
o Neurons
Responds to stimuli (sensory dendrites), transmit electrical impulses across distances (axons), and control muscle activity (motor axons)
o Glia:
many supportive roles (insulation, regulation, etc)
nervous tissue location
• Location
o Brain, spinal cord, nerves
muscle tissue function
o Moves the body and substances in the body (e.g. blood, food); Cells work together to make body move and move things within bod
o Myofilaments bring about movement or contraction of cells to create change in body/organ
muscle tissue features
o Vascular
o Innervated to cause movements (reactions)
o Cell division depends on type (variable mitotic rate, typically slow)
skeletal muscle cells
Long cylindrical multinucleate cells, obvious striations
Function: voluntary movement; locomotion, manipulation of environment, facial expression, voluntary control
Location: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin
cardiac muscle cells
Branching, striations, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized junctions (intercalated discs (has gap junctions to allow for flow of ions from one cell to the next)
Function: as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control
Location: the walls of the heart
o Smooth muscle
No striations. Spindle shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets
Function: propels substances or objects (food, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary
Location: mostly walls of hollow organs
Membranes
o Incorporate 1 or more tissue types
o Cover and line different organs or the body by forming sheets (typically epithelium covering connective tissue)
E.g mucus membrane is made up of epithelium and connective tissue in trachea and oral and nasal pharynx
Serous membrane around lungs - epithelium and connective tissue in between serous fluid which acts as a cushion for lungs)
Cutaneous membrane
Synovial membrane
• In between joints
Tissue repair
o Worn out, damaged tissue must be replaced = regeneration (same type) or fibrosis(connective, scar type)
o Process
Inflammation
Bleeding and inflammatory chemicals released
Blood vessels become more permeable and allow WBC, fluid, clotting
Organization
Clot replaced by granulation tissue, restore vascular supply
Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that bridge gap
Macrophages consume cell debris
Epithelial cells multiply and migrate over granulation tissue
Regeneration
Regeneration and fibrosis
Fibrosed area matures and contracts; epithelium thickens
Fully regenerated epithelium with underlying area of scar tissue
primary active transport
energy source; ATP
example: pumping ions acrosss membranes
secondary active transport
energy source: ion gradient
example: movement of polar or charged solutes across membranes
exocytosis
energy source: ATP
example: secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters
phagocytosis
energy source: ATP
example: white blood cell phagocytosis
pinocytosis
energy source: ATP
example: absorption by intestinal cells
simple diffusion
energy source: kinetic energy
example: movement of O2 through phospholipid bilayer
facilitated diffusion
energy source: kinetic energy
example: movement of glucose into cells
osmosis
energy source: kinetic energy
example: movement of H2O through phospholipid bilayer or AQPs
