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anatomy and physiology > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Homeostasis

A

o Maintaining the internal environment within physiological limits
o Continually being disrupted by
 External stimuli ( heat or cold, lack of O2)
 Internal stimuli (psychological stress, exercise)

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2
Q

Physiology

A

o Function
o Normal adult physiology studied in this text
o Some genetic variations described

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3
Q

Anatomy

A

o Structure
o Relationships revealed by dissection
o Imaging techniques

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4
Q

Levels of organization

A
  • Chemical: atoms, molecules
  • Cells: basic structural and function units
  • Tissues: groups of similarly specialized cells and the substances surrounding them
  • Organs: structures of definite form that are composed of 2 or more tissues and have specific functions
  • Organ systems: related organs that have a common function
  • The human organism: a collection of structurally and functionally integrated systems; any living individual
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5
Q

Integumentary system

A

o External body covering, protects deeper tissues from injury, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous receptors (pain, pressure, etc. , receptors, sweat and oil glands
o Hair, skin, nails

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6
Q

Skeletal system

A

o Protects and support body organs, provides framework for muscles to move, blood cells formed within bones, mineral storage
o Joint, bones

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7
Q

Muscular system

A

o Manipulation of environment, locomotion, facial expression, maintains posture, produces heat
o Skeletal muscles

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8
Q

Nervous system

A

o Control system of body, responds to internal and external changes by activating muscles and glands
o Brain, spinal cord, nerves

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9
Q

Endocrine system

A

o Glands secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, nutrient use (metabolism)
o Thyroid, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovary, testis, pituitary gland, pineal gland

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10
Q

Cardiovascular system

A

o Blood vessels transport blood which carry oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste etc. heart pumps blood
o Blood vessels, heart

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11
Q

Lymphatic system

A

o Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses WBC (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. Immune response mounts attack against foreign substances
o Red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes

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12
Q

Respiratory system

A

o Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. Gaseous exchange occurs through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
o Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung, bronchus

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13
Q

Digestive system

A

o Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible food eliminated as feces
o Oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

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14
Q

Urinary system

A

o Eliminates nitrogenous wastes, regulates water, electrolyte and acid base balance of the blood
o Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

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15
Q

Reproductive system

A

o Produce offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, male ducts and glands aid delivery of sperm to female reproductive tract
o Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
o Other female structures are sites for fertilization and fetus development. Mammary glands produce milk for newborn
o Male: penis, prostate gland, testis, ductus deferens, scrotum
o Female: mammary glands, ovary, uterus, vagina, uterine tube

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16
Q

Organ system interrelationships

A

• Example: digestive system takes in nutrients, breaks down, excretes waste. Respiratory system takes in O2 and eliminates Co2. Cardiovascular system distributes O2 and nutrients to body cells, delivers waste to disposal organs. Urinary system eliminates wastes.

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17
Q

Necessary life function

A

maintain boundaries between internal and external environments
o plasma membranes
o skin

movement (contractility)
o of body parts (skeletal muscle)
o of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
• responsiveness: the ability to sense and respond to stimuli
o withdrawal reflex
o control of breathing rate

digestion
o breakdown of ingested food
o absorption of simple molecules into blood

metabolism
o all chemical reactions that occur in body cells
 anabolism and catabolism

excretion
o	the removal of wastes from metabolism and 
digestion
	urea, co2, feces
o	reproduction
	cellular division for growth or repair
	production of offspring
o	growth
	increase in size of a body part of organism
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18
Q

Survival needs

A

nutrients
o chemicals for energy and cell building
o carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins

oxygen
o essential for energy release (ATP production)

water
o most abundant chemical in the body
o site of chemical reactions

normal body temperature
o affects rate of chemical reactions

appropriate atmospheric pressure
o for adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs

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19
Q

Components of a control mechanism

A

receptor (sensor)
o monitors the environment
o responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)

control center (the brain)
o determines point at which variable is maintained
o receives input from receptor
o determines appropriate response

effector
o receives output from control center
o provides the means to respond
o response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)

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20
Q

Negative feedback vs positive feedback

A

Negative feedback
o The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
 E.g. body temperature regulation, blood volume regulated by ADH

Positive feedback
o The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
o May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
o Usually controls infrequent events
 Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
 Platelet plug formation and blood clotting

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21
Q

directions and orientations

A 
o	Distal, proximal 
o	Right, left
o	Midline
o	Medial, lateral
o	Anterior, posterior
o	Superior, inferior
o	Superficial, deep
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22
Q

Sagittal

A

 Divides body vertically into right and left

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23
Q

Midsagittal

A

 Lies on midline

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24
Q

Parasagittal

A

 Not on midline

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25
Q

Frontal (coronal)

A

 Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior

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26
Q

Transverse (horizontal)

A

 Divides body horizontally into superior and inferior parts

 Produces a cross section

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27
Q

Oblique

A

 Cuts made diagonally

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28
Q

 Cranial cavity

A

• Contains brain

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29
Q

 Vertebral cavity

A

• Contains spinal cord

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30
Q

o Thoracic cavity

A

 Contains lungs and heart
 Superior mediastinum (above heart)
 Pleural (lungs)
 Pericardial (around heart, within mediastinum)

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31
Q

o Abdominal cavity

A

 Contains digestive viscera

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32
Q

o Pelvic cavity

A

 Urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum

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33
Q

o Ventral cavities

A

thoracic and abdominopelvic

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34
Q

• Body regions

A

 Axial – head, neck, trunk

 Appendicular – limbs

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35
Q

cephalic

A

head

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36
Q

frontal

A

forehead

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37
Q

orbital

A

eye

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38
Q

nasal

A

nose

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39
Q

mental

A

mouth

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40
Q

cervical

A

neck

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41
Q

thoracic region

A

chest area:

  • axillary (armpit)
  • mammary (breast)
  • sternal (sternum)
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42
Q

umblical

A

belly button (in abdominal cavity)

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43
Q

pubic

A

genital

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44
Q

acromial

A

shoulder (upper limb region)

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45
Q

brachial

A

arm (upper limb region)

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46
Q

antecubital

A

elbow pit (upper limb region)

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47
Q

antebrachial

A

forearm (upper limb region)

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48
Q

carpal

A

wrist (upper limb region)

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49
Q

manus

A

hand

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50
Q

palmar

A

palm (manus region)

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51
Q

pollex

A

thumb (manus region)

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52
Q

digital

A

fingers (manus region)

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53
Q

coxal

A

hip (lower limb region)

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54
Q

femoral

A

thigh (lower limb region)

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55
Q

patellar

A

knee (lower limb region)

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56
Q

crural

A

leg/shin (lower limb region)

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57
Q

fibular/peroneal

A

outer leg (lower limb region)

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58
Q

pedal

A

foot

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59
Q

tarsal

A

ankle (pedal)

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60
Q

metatarsal

A

top of food (pedal)

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61
Q

digital

A

toes (pedal)

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62
Q

hallux

A

big toe (pedal)

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63
Q

olecranial

A

elbow

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64
Q

metacarpal

A

top of hand (manus)

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65
Q

popliteal

A

knee pit (lower limb)

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66
Q

sural

A

calf (lower limb)

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67
Q

calcaneal

A

heel

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68
Q

plantar

A

sole of foot

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69
Q

cervical

A

neck

70
Q

scapular

A

upper sides of back

71
Q

vertebral

A

vertebrae

72
Q

lumbar

A

lower sides of back

73
Q

sacral

A

center lower back above butt

74
Q

gluteal

A

butt cheeks

75
Q

perineal

A

between anus and external genitalia

76
Q

serous membrane

A
  • Thin double layered membrane separated by serous fluid
  • Parietal serosa lines internal body walls
  • Visceral serosa covers internal organs
77
Q

matter

A

anything that occupies space and has mass

78
Q

energy

A

– the capacity to do work
o Types
 Kinetic – motion
 Potential – stored

o	Forms
	Chemical (stored in food)
	Electrical (nerve impulses)
	Mechanical (muscle contraction)
	Electromagnetic (light energy for vision
79
Q

• Chemistry

A

o The science of the structure and interactions of matter

80
Q

weight vs mass

A

• Weight
o the force of gravity acting on a mass

• Mass
o the amount of matter a substance contains

81
Q

Valence Shells

A
  • 1st shell holds 2 electrons
  • 2nd shell holds 8 electrons
  • 3rd shell holds 18 electrons
  • All shells usually have 8 electrons in valence shell
82
Q

Different types of bonding

A

• Ionic bonds
o are relatively weak (e.g. easily broken apart by water
o Electrons donated or accepted

• Covalent bonds
o Strong type of bond
o Electrons are shared

• Hydrogen bonds
o Partial positive and partial negative charge makes molecules attracted to each other: polarity (unequal sharing of electrons
o Covalent bonds between atoms within a water molecule
o Relatively weak
o Hydrogen bonds between molecules

83
Q

• Water

A 
o	Prevents sudden temp change
o	Removes heat in perspiration
o	Dissolves many chemicals
o	Breaks down food 
o	Cushioning
84
Q

Chemical reactions

A

formation or breaking of bonds between atoms; involves energy

o Synthesis reactions- smaller particles bond together to form larger molecules

 Synthetase puts together glucose to form glycogen (probably on exam)

o Decomposition reactions – bonds are broken in larger molecules, resulting in smaller, less complex molecules

o Exchange reactions – bonds are made and broken
 ATP transfers phosphate group to glucose

85
Q

• Chemical energy

A

energy stored in bonds of molecules

86
Q

organic compounds

A 
•	Organic molecules need to contain carbon
o	Proteins
o	Carbohydrates
o	Fats
o	Nucleic acids
87
Q

Acids vs bases vs salts

A

o Acids dissociate into H+ and 1 or more anion
o Bases dissociate into OH- and 1 or more cation (proton acceptor)
o Salts dissociate into anions and cations that are not H+ or OH-

88
Q

• Proteins

A

o C H N O
o peptide bonds between amino acids (don’t worry about specifics)
o Synthetase puts together glucose to form glycogen (probably on exam)
o Substrates are reusable
o Sensitive to pH and high temperature
o Proteins can be denatured by heat, acd, salt
 Changes the protein’s 3D shape

89
Q

• Enzymes

A

o Substrates are molecules that are being acted on by the enzyme
o Active site is where the enzyme bonds to on the substrate

90
Q

• Nucleic acids- stores genetic information

A

o Polymers are DNA and RNA
o C H N O P
o 5 carbon sugar - deoxyribose (H) or ribose (OH)
o A chromosome is 1 long DNA molecule
o Central dogma: DNA -> RNA -> protein
o ATP - energetic currency for the cell
 High energy phosphate bonds hydrolyzed to release energy

91
Q

• Lipids

A 
o	Mostly c chain with H side group
o	Used for energy, structural support, messengers
o	Non polar
o	Monomer – fatty acid
o	Polymer – fats (triglycerides)
o	Phospholipids – cell mebrane
o	Steroid – hormones, cholesterol
92
Q

• Carbohydrates

A

o C chain with H and OH side groups
o Used for energy and structural support
o Monomer -monosaccharides ( glucose, fructose)
o Polymer - polysacharrides

93
Q

• 3 parts of a cell

A 
o	Plasma membrane
o	Cytoplasm
	Cytosol
	Organelles (except for nucleus)
	Nucleus
94
Q

• Organelles

A 
o	Mitochondria
	Makes ATP
o	Smooth ER
	Lipid synthesis
o	Rough ER
	Protein synthesis
o	Golgi apparatus
	“Post office”
	Takes vesicles from rough ER, golgi apparatus distributes proteins via secretary vesicles
o	Lysosomes
	Garbage disposal/detoxification
95
Q

•Membrane lipids

A

 Phospholipid bilayer
 Hydrophilic heads
 Hydrophobic tails

96
Q

o Membrane proteins

A

 Receptors (e.g. neurotransmitters, hormones)

 Channels - allows things to get through

97
Q

o semi permeable plasma membrane

A 
	Cannot pass
	Large polar (hydrophilic)
	Charged
	Can pass
	Small gasses
	Nonpolar (hydrophobic)
	Small polar (water)
	Passive diffusion
	Carrier mediated - specific to a chemical
	Channel mediated, mostly ions based on size and charge
	Osmosis- water transport - aquaporins 
	Simple diffusion - fat soluble molecules diffuse through phospholipid bilayer
98
Q

o Tonicity

A

 Crenation is shriveling in hypertonic solution

hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic

99
Q

• Active transport

A

o example: Sodium - glucose co transport

100
Q

• Cytoskeletal organelles

A

network of rods in cytosol that provide support for cellular structure

o Microtubules are largest, microfilaments are smallest, intermediate filaments in the middle
o Microfilaments
 Actic subunit - movement
o Intermediate filaments - structural, tough protein fibers, help form shape of cell
o Microtubules- transport things within a cell

101
Q

cellular extensions

A

protruding parts of cell used for motility or to increase surface area
o Cilia - hairlike projections that move mucus
o Microvilli - increases surface area of cell to increase absorption, often in small intestine
o Flagellum - tail used to move cell (e.g. sperm)

102
Q

membrane junctions

A

o Tight junctions
 Prevent things from going through cells
 Important in the blood brain barrier - prevents things from going from your blood to your brain

o Desmosome
 Adhesions that bind cells together

o Gap junctions
 Allows for flow of ions to go from one cell to the next

103
Q

• Nucleus

A

o Next to the rough ER
o Homologous chromosomes are chromosome pairs
o Diploid has a full set of chromosomes
o Haploid has 1 set of chromosome from each pair
• Nucleus function
o Transcription happens in nucleus
o DNA has instructions for gene which codes from specific protein

104
Q

o Central dogma

A

DNA -> RNA -> protein

105
Q

interphase

A

 G1: growth
 S: growth and DNA synthesis/replication
 G2: growth and final preparation for division
(cell is usually in interphase)

106
Q

enzymes for DNA replication

A

o DNA helicase unzips chromosome and exposes bases

o DNA polymerases add complementary bases to build new DNA strange, They can only go one direction

107
Q

leading vs lagging strang

A

o Leading strand is continuous
o Lagging strand is fragmented (akazaki fragments)
o On the top the dna polymerase is going from right to left and following helicase in same direction

108
Q

semiconservative replication

A

1 strand thats new and 1 thats old

109
Q

o Main points about DNA replication

A

 It’s in the S phase
 Know the enzymes (helicase and DNA polymerase)
 Leading strand is continuous
 Lagging strand is fragmented
 It’s a semiconservative replication which means 1 old and 1 new
 No uracils

110
Q

Coding vs template strand

A

Coding DNA is the same as mRNA, template DNA is complementary to mRNA

111
Q

prophase

A

 chromosome s become visible, 2 chromatids joined at a centromere (center portion of chromosome)
 Centrosomes separate and migrate towards opposite poles
 Mitotic spindles and asters form
 Spindles attach to centromeres, the spindles are called kinetochore microtubles

112
Q

Metaphase

A

 Centromeres of chromosomes are aligned at equator
 nuclear envelope disintegrates, it disappeared in prophase
 Midway plane is called the metaphase plate

113
Q

anaphase

A

 Pulling apart
 Centromeres of chromosomes split simultaneously, each chromatid becomes a chromosome\
 Chromosomes are pulled towards poles by motor proteins of kinetochores

114
Q

telophase

A

 The two sets of chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin
 New nuclear membrane forms around each chromatin mass
 Nucleoli reappear
 Spindle disappears

115
Q

cytokinesis

A

(already started in late anaphase)
 Cell divides
 2 daughter cells are pinched apart, each containing a nucleus identical to the original

116
Q

transcription

A

DNA to mRNA

117
Q

translation

A

mRNA to polypeptide

118
Q

3 types of RNA

A

mRNA
 Carries instructions for building polypeptide, from gene in DNA to ribosomes in cytoplasm

rRNA
 A structural component of ribosomes that along with rRNA helps translate message from mRNA

tRNA
 Binds amino acids and pair with bases of codons of MRNA at ribosome to begin process of protein synthesis

119
Q

o Introns vs exons

A

 Introns get cut out and exons get expressed in mRNA

120
Q

transcription steps

A

genes are transcribed into RNA in nucleus
 RNA polymerase
 Unzips DNA and makes mRNA at the same time
 Uses template strand of DNA to make mRNA
 mRNA is complementary to template strand and identical to coding strand
 RNA is intermediate between DNA and protein
 RNA is copy of coding strand
 Different genes are expressed in different cells (muscle vs bone)

121
Q

translation steps

A 
	Initiator tRNA
	Start codon on mRNA AUG
	Functional ribosome is formed
	Initiator tRNA fits into Psite on rRNA
	Anticodon of tRNA matches codons of mRNA
	Ribosome moves along an mRNA strand as amino acids are joined to form a growing polypeptide
	Stop codon on mRNA (UGA, UAG, UAA)
	Triplets on DNA
	Codons are on mRNA
	Anticodon on tRNA
122
Q

4 types of tissue

A

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

123
Q

epithelial tissue function

A

o Protection, filtration, lubrication, secretion, digestion, absorption, transport, excretion, sensory reception (to a degree- houses nervous system tissue), reproduction

124
Q

types of epithelial cells

A

o Squamous
 Flat, good for moving nutrients or substances, not good for making/secreting substances b/c it’s flat and can’t house many organelles
o Cuboidal
 More rounded/cube shape, intermediate between columnar and squamous
o Columnar
 Can house more organelles, make proteins, etc.

125
Q

general features of epithelial tissue

A

o Closely packed, many cell junctions, little ECM
o Sits on a basement membrane
 Apical (top) free surface
 Basal surface against basal membrane
o Avascular
 Nutrients and waste must move by diffusion
 Usually connective tissue layer next to epithelial that’s vascularized
o Good nerve supply
o Rapid cell division

126
Q

simple (single layer) epithelia

A

 Good for absorption, less protective

127
Q

o Stratified (multiple layers) epithelia

A

 Good for protection

128
Q

o Simple squamous epithelia

A

 Structure: single layer of flat cells, sparse cytoplasm
 Function: materials can diffuse/filter, secrete lubricants
 Example: air sacs of lungs

129
Q

o Simple cuboidal/columnar epithelia

A

 Structure: single layer, cuboidal or tall cells
 Function: secrete/absorption, columnar may have cilia
 Location: cuboidal: kidney tubules, ducts of small glands, ovary surface; columnar: digestive tract, gall gladder, ciliated bronchi, uterine tubes (columnar is thicker so better protection)

130
Q

o Pseudostratified columnar epithelia

A

 Structure: single layer with somata at different heights; may be ciliated
 Function: secretes and propels mucus (with cilia)
 Location: sperm carry ducts, ciliated in trachea, upper respiratory tract

131
Q

o Stratified squamous epithelia

A

 Structure: thick, several layers; surface cells flat, basal cells columnar
 Function: protects anywhere abrasion is possible
 Location: moist linings of esophagus, mouth, vagina; hardened form on skin epidermis

132
Q

transitional epithelia

A

 Structure: stratified squamous/cuboidal
 Function: stretches readily
 Location: bladder, ureters, part of urethra

133
Q

endocrine vs exocrine glandular epithelial

A

o Gland: 1 or more cells that makes and secretes and aqueous fluid. 2 types:
o endocrine
 secretes within body – hormones into blood)
 ductless - no tubes to transfer fluid out into the surface
 secretes hormones that travels through lymph or blood to target organs
o exocrine
 secretes substances onto surface (e.g. sweat glands) or into body cavities
 secretes products into ducts

134
Q

types of exocrine glands

A

o Functional
 Merocrine
• Products secreted by exocytosis (pancreas, sweat glands, salivary glands)
 Holocrine
• Products secreted by rupture of gland cells

135
Q

structure of exocrine glands

A 
	Simple duct
•	Single, does not branch
•	Tubular or alveolar
	Compound duct
•	Multiple, does branch
•	Tubular or alveolar
136
Q

connective tissue function

A

o Bind and support, protection, insulation, transport

137
Q

types of connective tissue

A

o Bone, blood, connective tissue proper, cartilage

138
Q

general features of connective tissue

A

• General features
o Most abundant and widely distributed in body
o Occurs between surfaces
o Highly vascularized (except cartilage and tendons)
o Has a nerve supply (except cartilage)
o Each class has a specific type and extracellular matrix

139
Q

connective tissue cell types

A

• Cells (immature vs mature)

140
Q

Extracellular matrix characteristics

A

 Nonliving, contains ground substance and fibers

141
Q

ECM ground substance

A

 Unstructured material (fluid, proteins, proteoglycans)

 Nutrients etc can diffuse between blood capillaries and cells

142
Q

ECM fibers

A

 Provides support; 3 types
 Collagen (white fibers)
• Strongest and most abundant
• Provides high tensile strength (resists force)
 Elastic
• Networks of long thin elastin fibers
• Allows for stretch
 Reticular
• Short, fine highly branched collagenous fibers
• Allows the tissue to be hollow so cells (e.g.WBC) can pass through)

143
Q

hyaline cartilage

A

o Hyaline
 Amorphous but firm matrix, collagen fibers form an imperceptible network; chondroblasts produce the matrix, chondrocytes are in lacunae
 Function: supports, reinforces, cushioning, resists compressive stress
 Location: covers end of long bones in joint cavities; costal cartilages of ribs, cartilages of nose, trachea, larynx, forms most of embryonic skeleton

144
Q

elastic cartilage

A

o Elastic
 Similar to hyaline, but more elastic fibers in matrix
 Function: maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility
 Location: supports external ear (pinna); epiglottis

145
Q

o Fibrocartilage

A

 Matrix similar but less firm than hyaline; thick collagen fibers mostly
 Function: tensile strength with ability to absorb compressive shock
 Location: intervertebral discs between vertebrae; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint

146
Q

Dense irregular connective tissue proper

A

Dense irregular
 Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers, major cell type is fibroblast
 Function: able to withstand tension exerted in many directions, provides structural strength
 Location: fibrous capsules of organs and joints; example: dermis of skin (KNOW THIS); submucosa of digestive tract

147
Q

dense regular connective tissue proper

A

 Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers, major cell type is fibroblast
 Function: able to withstand tension exerted in many directions, provides structural strength
 Location: fibrous capsules of organs and joints; example: dermis of skin; submucosa of digestive tract

148
Q

o Elastic dense connective tissue proper

A

 High proportion of elastic fibers
 Function: allows recoil of tissue after stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries, aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration
 Location: walls of large arteries; within certain ligaments associated with the vertebral column; within walls of bronchial tube

149
Q

areolar: loose connective tissue proper

A

 Gel like matrix, all 3 fiber types
 Wraps and cushions organs
 Location: widely distributed under epithelia of body
 Example: lamina propia - membrane surrounding organs under epithelium

150
Q

adipose tissue - fat cells loose connective tissue proper

A

 Similar matrix to areolar but sparse; closely packed adipocytes, nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet
 Function: provides reserve food fuel, insulates against heat loss, supports and protects organs
 Location: under skin in the hypodermis, around kidneys and eyeballs, within abdomen, in breasts

151
Q

Reticular connective tissue

A

 Network of reticular fibers in a typical loose ground substance; reticular cells lie on the network
 Function: fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that supports other cell types including white blood cells, mast cells, macrophages
 Location: lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow, spleen)

152
Q

Bone

A

o Hard, calcified matrix contains many collagen fibers; osteocytes in lacunae, very vascularized
o Function: support, protect, provide levers for muscles to act on, stores calcium and other minerals and fat, marrow inside bones makes red blood cells (hematopoesis), also makes white blood cells

153
Q

blood

A

o Red and white blood cells
o Functions: RBC carries oxygen; WBC defends against foreign invaders
o Location: contained within blood vessels

154
Q

Nervous tissue features

A

o Senses, integrates, and controls body functions
o Neurons conduct nerve impulses; typically have specialized processes
o Vascular - with blood vessels
o Is the nerve supply; innervates most parts of the body to sense environment and react to it
o Very little cell division in neurons (low mitotic rate)

155
Q

nervous tissue cell types and function

A

o Neurons
 Responds to stimuli (sensory dendrites), transmit electrical impulses across distances (axons), and control muscle activity (motor axons)
o Glia:
 many supportive roles (insulation, regulation, etc)

156
Q

nervous tissue location

A

• Location

o Brain, spinal cord, nerves

157
Q

muscle tissue function

A

o Moves the body and substances in the body (e.g. blood, food); Cells work together to make body move and move things within bod
o Myofilaments bring about movement or contraction of cells to create change in body/organ

158
Q

muscle tissue features

A

o Vascular
o Innervated to cause movements (reactions)
o Cell division depends on type (variable mitotic rate, typically slow)

159
Q

skeletal muscle cells

A

 Long cylindrical multinucleate cells, obvious striations
 Function: voluntary movement; locomotion, manipulation of environment, facial expression, voluntary control
 Location: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin

160
Q

cardiac muscle cells

A

 Branching, striations, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized junctions (intercalated discs (has gap junctions to allow for flow of ions from one cell to the next)
 Function: as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control
 Location: the walls of the heart

161
Q

o Smooth muscle

A

 No striations. Spindle shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets
 Function: propels substances or objects (food, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary
 Location: mostly walls of hollow organs

162
Q

Membranes

A

o Incorporate 1 or more tissue types
o Cover and line different organs or the body by forming sheets (typically epithelium covering connective tissue)
 E.g mucus membrane is made up of epithelium and connective tissue in trachea and oral and nasal pharynx
 Serous membrane around lungs - epithelium and connective tissue in between serous fluid which acts as a cushion for lungs)
 Cutaneous membrane
 Synovial membrane
• In between joints

163
Q

Tissue repair

A

o Worn out, damaged tissue must be replaced = regeneration (same type) or fibrosis(connective, scar type)
o Process
 Inflammation
 Bleeding and inflammatory chemicals released
 Blood vessels become more permeable and allow WBC, fluid, clotting
 Organization
 Clot replaced by granulation tissue, restore vascular supply
 Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that bridge gap
 Macrophages consume cell debris
 Epithelial cells multiply and migrate over granulation tissue
 Regeneration
 Regeneration and fibrosis
 Fibrosed area matures and contracts; epithelium thickens
 Fully regenerated epithelium with underlying area of scar tissue

164
Q

primary active transport

A

energy source; ATP

example: pumping ions acrosss membranes

165
Q

secondary active transport

A

energy source: ion gradient

example: movement of polar or charged solutes across membranes

166
Q

exocytosis

A

energy source: ATP

example: secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters

167
Q

phagocytosis

A

energy source: ATP

example: white blood cell phagocytosis

168
Q

pinocytosis

A

energy source: ATP

example: absorption by intestinal cells

169
Q

simple diffusion

A

energy source: kinetic energy

example: movement of O2 through phospholipid bilayer

170
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

energy source: kinetic energy

example: movement of glucose into cells

171
Q

osmosis

A

energy source: kinetic energy

example: movement of H2O through phospholipid bilayer or AQPs

anatomy and physiology (3 decks)

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