Middle Childhood to Adolescence: Psychosocial Development

Question 1

From children to adolescents

Answer 1

• middle childhood (years 6-12) is a transitional period between two periods that are characterised by major changes
• middle childhood is a time for developmental consolidation, but important changes here in self-regulation and sense of self
• adolescence (years 12-18) now seen as a period of transformation, rather than a period of turbulence
• important changes in the sense of self, per relations and parent-child relationships in adolescence
• early (year 12-13) and late adolescence (years 17-18) can be rather different in terms of psychosocial functioning

Question 2

Achieving autonomy: middle childhood

Answer 2

• shift from external control by parents to internal self-regulation
• but, parental monitoring – supervision and regulation of children’s behaviour by parents – essential for optimal psychosocial development
• proactive and reactive parenting
• parental monitoring becomes less frequent and less direct as child gets older
• adolescent parent-child relationships based on those established in childhood, but become transformed in adolescence
• important changes in communication patterns
• marked shift towards symmetrical egalitarian parent-child relationship in adolescence
• adolescents increase self-regulation; seek control, choice, and autonomy
• parents usually willing to grant autonomy in late rather than early adolescence
• important of parenting styles
• behavioural control vs psychological control

Question 3

Relationships with peers

Answer 3

• peer – a social equal who functions at a level of behavioural complexity similar to that of the self
• peer relationships
  o are horizontal and symmetrical
  o are spontaneous, egalitarian, competitive
  o need to be supported and maintained

Question 4

Peer interactions

Answer 4

o provide alternative ways of interacting
o teach emotional control and communication on equal footing
o develop relationship skills

Question 5

Gender Segregation common in early and middle childhood

Answer 5

o boys – dominance hierarchy
o girls – less hierarchical, more exclusive
o border work – playful incursions into opposite territory

Question 6

Peer group

Answer 6

• belonging to a peer group is different from having playmates
• peer relations based on mutual loyalty and caring
• peer group
  o interacts on a regular basis
  o defines a sense of belonging
  o formulates its own norms
  o develops a structure or hierarchical organisation
• peer group conformity important

Question 7

Peer group acceptance

Answer 7

• peer acceptance – a measure of person’s likeability (or dislikeability) in the eyes of peers
• peer acceptance vs peer rejection
• sociometric techniques to assess peer status
• popularity – not only accepted but especially admired and favoured
• typology of peer status

Question 8

Popularity associated with

Answer 8

-	Popularity associated with
o	Physical attractiveness
o	Standard name
o	Higher academic achievement
o	Social competence

Question 9

Rejection associated with

Answer 9

o Socially inappropriate behaviours
o Academic problems
o But in adolescence between popularity and antisocial behaviour

Question 10

Adolescent peer relations: Clique

Answer 10

o A group of 3-9 members
o characterised by close relationships
o Provide security, group norms

Question 11

Adolescent peer relations: crowd

Answer 11

o A collection of cliques, about 20 members

o Provide group identity (similar norms, interests and values)

Question 12

Romantic Relationships

Answer 12

• Transition to dating takes place in the context of the larger peer group
• Romantic relationships change significantly in adolescence (Brown, 1999)

Question 13

Friendship

Answer 13

• Friendships – peer relations that are based on intimacy and self-disclosure
• Friendships are
  o Voluntary
  o Reciprocal
  o Characterised by feelings of companionship, affection and intimacy
  o Distinctive from general peer relationships
• Friendships can compensate for lack of general peer popularity

Question 14

Changing conceptions of friendships: Momentary companions

Answer 14

Playmates who happen to live nearby and play together often

Question 15

Changing conceptions of friendships: One-way partnership

Answer 15

A friend is a special playmate who is willing to engage in one’s own favourite form of play

Question 16

Changing conceptions of friendships: Fair-weather cooperators

Answer 16

Partners whose likes and dislikes are known without understanding the basis for such preferences in the individual’s personality

Question 17

Changing conceptions of friendships: Autonomous interdependency

Answer 17

Intimate and mutually shared relationships (after age 15)

Question 18

Self-perceptions: Self-concept

Answer 18

Our perceptions- positive, negative, realistic, unrealistic - of our attributes and traits as a person

Question 19

Self-perceptions: Identity

Answer 19

Our overall sense of who and how we fit into society

Question 20

Self-perceptions: Self-esteem

Answer 20

Our overall evaluation of our worth as a person based upon the positive and negative self-perceptions that constitute our self-concept

Question 21

Self concept in infancy and early childhood

Answer 21

o Self-recognition occurs in most infants by 18-24 months of age
o Categorical self – classification of the self into social categories, such as sex, age and other visible characteristics – emerges in toddlerhood
o Preschoolers’ self-concept is concrete and physical

Question 22

Self-concept in middle childhood

Answer 22

o Self-knowledge increases
• Moves beyond observable features and absolute descriptors
• Becomes more complex and better organised
o Incorporates aspects of social description and comparison
• How popular they are
• How their skills compare with others

Question 23

Self-concept in adolescence

Answer 23

• In adolescence self-concept becomes more complex and abstract reflecting formal operational thought
• Increased skills in perspective taking
  o Adolescent egocentrism (everyone is thinking about me)
  o Personal fable (no one understands what I’m going through)
  o Imaginary audience (everyone’s looking at me)
• Recognise inconsistencies of self
  o Interpreted as differences ‘true’ and ‘false’ selves

Question 24

Development of self-esteem

Answer 24

• Pre-schoolers distinguish two aspects of self-esteem
  o Competence (physical and cognitive)
  o Personal and social adequacy (social acceptance)
• By mid primary school, children differentiate among five aspects of self worth / self esteem
• In adolescence self-esteem becomes multidimensional and hierarchical
• Global self-esteem – overall view and evaluation of self

Question 25

Changes in self-esteem: Middle childhood

Answer 25

o The accuracy of children’s self-evaluations increases over the primary school years
o Children form a sense of what they ‘should’ be like – an ideal self
• With age, the gap between the real self and the ideal self increases
• Contributes to a decrease in average self-esteem from early to middle childhood

Question 26

Changes in self-esteem: Adolescence

Answer 26

o Decreases in adolescence associated with
• Transitions, stresses and challenges of adolescence and school
• More realistic self-appraisals
o authoritative parenting enhances self-esteem, while authoritarian parenting reduces it
- important as high self-esteem is positively correlated with a variety of measures of good adjustment

Question 27

Adolescence and identity development

Answer 27

• traditionally considered a time of turbulence, with identity issues central to this period of crisis
• in order to resolve the crisis into a secure and coherent sense of identity, the adolescent must formulate:
  o a philosophy of life, including moral values and orientation to religion
  o a personality pattern, linking early temperament with dispositions into comfortable adult character
  o a decision about one’s gender role
  o a sense of self as a sexual being
  o a stance in relation to politics and social issues
  o a blueprint for future intimate relationships
  o a sense of self, including ethnic identity
  o an occupation or career identity

Question 28

Psychosocial Development Erickson: Trust Versus Mistrust birth-1

Answer 28

Focus on oral-sensory activity; development of trusting relationships with caregivers and of self-trust (hope)

Question 29

Psychosocial Development Erickson: Autonomy versus shame and doubt 1-3

Answer 29

Focus on muscular-anal activity; development of control over bodily functions and activities (will)

Question 30

Psychosocial Development Erickson: Initiative versus guilt 3-6

Answer 30

Focus on locomotor - genital activity; testing limits of self-assertion and purposefulness (purpose)

Question 31

Psychosocial Development Erickson: Industry versus inferiority 6-12 (latency period)

Answer 31

Focus on mastery, competence, and productivity (competence)

Question 32

Psychosocial Development Erickson: Identity versus role confusion 12-19 years (adolescence)

Answer 32

Focus on formation of identity and coherent self-concept (fidelity)

Question 33

Psychosocial Development Erickson: Intimacy versus isolation 19-25 years (early adulthood)

Answer 33

Focus on achievement of an intimate relationship and career direction (love)

Question 34

Psychosocial Development Erickson: Generativity versus stagnation 25-50 years (adulthood)

Answer 34

Focus on fulfilment through creative, productive activity that contributes to future generations (care)

Question 35

Psychosocial Development Erickson: Ego integrity versus despair 50 years older

Answer 35

Focus on belief in integrity of life, including successes and failures (wisdom)

Question 36

Developmental processes

Answer 36

Development of the ego, or sense of identity, occurs through a series of stages, each building on the preceding stages and focused on successfully resolving a new psychosocial crisis between two opposing ego qualities. No stage is fully resolved, and a more favourable resolution at earlier stages facilitates the achievement of later stages

Question 37

Summary

Answer 37

• parent-child relationships continue to be important in middle childhood and adolescence
• parent-child relationships become less asymmetrical in adolescence compared with childhood, as a result of adolescents’ push for autonomy
• role and structure of peer relationships and friendships important for development in middle childhood and adolescence
• positive peer-relationships in adolescence include same-sex friendships that are high in intimacy and mutual support and are an essential bridge to successful romantic relationships that may also begin during adolescence
• self-concepts of preschool children are focused on physical characteristics and activities. Older children describe their inner traits and social ties (established through social comparison). In adolescence self-concept based on more abstract beliefs and values. Self-esteem decreases between childhood and mid-adolescence
• establishment of personal identity – successful resolution of Erikson’s psychosocial crisis of identity vs role confusion a key task of adolescence