Mid Term

Question 1

What is evidence based medicine?

Answer 1

medical practice or care that emphasizes the practical application of the findings of the best available current research.

Question 2

How is evidence based medicine graded?

Answer 2

The guideline decisions are endorsed by panels of leading doctors from the relevant field. The panels produce sets of recommendations after reviewing all the research studies. The doctors review the best health care programs and medical treatments, they look at each piece of medical research, and they give them approval ratings. Stronger evidence makes the guidance more influential. The ratings reflect how good the evidence is that underlies each recommendation.

Question 3

Examples of scientific studies

Answer 3

a case report, case controlled study, cohort study, randomized control trial

Question 4

Who grades the evidence based medicine?

Answer 4

Expert bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) make decisions about the best available medical interventions. They produce guidelines for health care professionals to use. These bodies use a system of grading known as the “GRADE” system, developed by the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE).

Question 5

Types of grades possible?

Answer 5

• High-grade - based on randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and systematic reviews of RCTs
• Low-grade - taken from observational studies
• Very low-grade - any other evidence.

Question 6

equilibrium

Answer 6

equal concentration of molecules in a space or on both sides of the membrane

Question 7

simple diffusion

Answer 7

The diffusion of solute particles dissolved in water through a selectively permeable membrane

Question 8

osmosis

Answer 8

the movement of water across a membrane, is a special case of diffusion. Osmosis takes place whenever there is a difference in water concentration between two sides of a membrane

Question 9

Treatment Research

Answer 9

generally involves an intervention such as medication, psychotherapy, new devices, or new approaches to surgery or radiation therapy.

Question 10

Prevention Research

Answer 10

Prevention Research looks for better ways to prevent disorders from developing or returning. Different kinds of prevention research may study medicines, vitamins, vaccines, minerals, or lifestyle changes.

Question 11

Diagnostic Research

Answer 11

refers to the practice of looking for better ways to identify a particular disorder or condition.

Question 12

Screening Research

Answer 12

aims to find the best ways to detect certain disorders or health conditions.

Question 13

Quality of Life Research

Answer 13

explores ways to improve comfort and the quality of life for individuals with a chronic illness.

Question 14

Genetic studies

Answer 14

aim to improve the prediction of disorders by identifying and understanding how genes and illnesses may be related. Research in this area may explore ways in which a person’s genes make him or her more or less likely to develop a disorder. This may lead to development of tailor-made treatments based on a patient’s genetic make-up.

Question 15

hypertonic

Answer 15

When water concentration outside a cell is greater than inside

Question 16

hypotonic

Answer 16

the cell can burst

Question 17

isotonic

Answer 17

Under ideal conditions, the water concentration outside is nearly identical to that inside

Question 18

osmotic pressure

Answer 18

is the pressure that would be required to stop water from diffusing through a barrier by osmosis. It is how hard the water would “push” to get through the barrier to diffuse to the other side.

Question 19

placebo

Answer 19

a medical treatment or procedure designed to deceive the participant of a clinical experiment. It does not contain any active ingredients but often still produces a physical effect on the individual. Placebos are essential to the design of reliable clinical trials.

Question 20

placebo effect

Answer 20

refers to the impact of a placebo on an individual. Even inactive treatment has repeatedly demonstrated a measurable, positive health response. The power of the placebo effect is considered to be a psychological phenomenon.

Question 21

four of the factors said to be involved in the placebo effect

Answer 21

1. Expectation and conditioning
2. The placebo effect and the brain
3. Psychoneuroimmunology
4. Evolved health regulation

Question 22

Uses of placebos

Answer 22

Doctors around the world use placebos for clinical purposes due to their effects on a range of illnesses. A Danish study in 2008 found that 48 percent of doctors had prescribed placebos at least 10 times in the past year. Most often, these placebos were antibiotics for viral illnesses and vitamins for fatigue. A similar study of doctors in Israel found that 60 percent prescribed placebos to deter patients who wanted unjustified medication, or if a patient “needed calming.”

Question 23

are placebos ethical

Answer 23

This usage raises ethical questions. The doctor is misleading the patient. On the other hand, if the placebo has the intended effect, it should still be considered effective treatment. Another argument says that by prescribing a placebo to placate a patient, the correct diagnosis of a serious ailment might be postponed. Doctors and pharmacists could potentially open themselves up to fraud charges.

Question 24

Muscle fatigue

Answer 24

is the decline in ability of a muscle to generate force. Muscle fatigue occurs with prolonged or repetitive use of a muscle group, and is familiar to anyone who has ever carried a heavy suitcase or walked up a long flight of stairs. With fatigue, there is a sense of weakness and even discomfort, which eventually leads one to discontinue the activity that is causing it.

Question 25

motor units

Answer 25

unit is made up of a motor neuron and the skeletal muscle fibers innervated by that motor neuron’s axonal terminals.

Question 26

contraction of muscles

Answer 26

Groups of motor units often work together to coordinate the contractions of a single muscle.

Question 27

There are three basic types of muscle fibers

Answer 27

slow fibers, fast fibers, and intermediate fibers.

Question 28

Sensory disorders

Answer 28

• Pain, sensitivity, numbness, tingling or prickling, burning, problems with positional awareness, paraesthesia, anesthesia.

Question 29

Motor disorders

Answer 29

Weakness, muscle atrophy, twitching (also known as fasciculation), paralysis.

Question 30

Upper motor neuron disorders

Answer 30

Hyperreflexia, Babinski sign, and weakness.

Question 31

Lower motor neuron disorders

Answer 31

Weakness and hyporeflexia