Mid Term #2 Flashcards
Developmental Psychology
Change in physical, cognitive, moral, emotional and social functioning as you progress from birth to childhood to adolescence to adulthood
Piaget and Cognitive Development
- Learn how to be adaptive to environment
- Develop different schemes/script to learn/deal with environment
Assmilation
Process of incorporating new info into existing understanding
One of two ways of acquiring knoewledge
Accomodation
Process of modifying one’s exiting through process and framework of knowledge in response to new info
One of two ways of acquiring knowledge
Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational
Sensorimotor
- Birth to 2 yrs
- Motor skills and senses
- Object permanence
Preoperational
- 2-7 yrs
- Imagination, no other’s point of view, centrisism and egocentrism
What is Memory?
The faculty for recalling past events and past learning
Three activities of Memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Encoding
Getting information into memory in the first place
Storage
Retaining memories for future use
Retrieval
Recapturing memories when we need them
Information-Processing Model
View of memory suggesting that information moves among three memory stores during encoding, storage and retrieval
Three memory stores of Information Processing Model
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Sensory Memory
Purpose: Holds sensory information
Duration: Last up to half a seconds for visual, 2-4 seconds for auditory
Capacity: Large
Information not transferred is lost
Working Memory
Purpose: Holds information temporarily for analysis
Duration: up to 30 seconds without rehearsal
Capacity: limited to 5-9 items
Information not transferred is lost
Long Term Memory
Purpose: Relatively permanent storage
Duration: Relatively permanent
Capacity: Relatively unlimited
Cognitive Development
Changes in thinking that occur over thee course of time
Scheme
Piaget’s proposed mental structures or frameworks for understanding or thinking about the world
Concrete Operational
- 7-11 yrs
- Talk about complex relationships
- Categorization and Cause and Effect
- Limited to understanding ideas of real-world relationships
Egocentrisim
Flaws in children’s reasoning based on their inability to take another person’s perspective
Formal Operational Stage
- 11 on wards
- Achieve hypothetical deductive reasoning
- Ability to think abstractly
Information-Processing Theory
- Alternate learning theory
- Focused on how children learn, remember, organize and use information from their environment
- Piaget looked at what could do rather than mental facilities (object permanence could be seen in younger children too young to reach for the ball)
Habituation
The process where individuals pay less attention to a stimulus after it is presented to them over and over again
- This technique was used to determine object permanence as young as 3 months old
Theory of Mind
An awareness of one’s own mental states and the mental states of others
Scaffolding
Developmental adjustments that adults make to give children the help that they need, but not so much that they fail to move forward
Zone of Proximal Development
The gap between what a child could accomplish alone and what the child can accomplish with help from others
Temperment
A biologically based tendency to respond to certain situations in similar ways throughout a person’s lifetime
Types of Temperment
Easy
Difficult
Slow to warm up
Unique
Easy
- 40%
- Cheerful, regular in routines
- Open to novelty
Difficult
- 10%
- Irritable
- Negative reactions to changes or new situations
Slow to Warm Up
- 15%
- Less active and less responsive
- Tend to withdraw in the face of change, though not as sharply negative as those with difficult
Unique
- 35%
- Unique blends of characteristics from the other categories
Key Aspects of Temperment
- Temperament is inborn
2. Temperament is stable across situations and time
Attachment
A significant emotional connection to another person such as a baby to a primary caregiver
Attachment styles
Secure Attachment
Anxious/avoidance Attachment
Anxious/ambivalent/resistant attachment
Disorganized/disoriented Attachment
Secure Attachment
- 60%
- Infant used mother as a secure base from which to explore and as a support in time of trouble
- Infant is moderately distressed when the mother leaves and happy when she returns
Anxious/avoidant Attacment
- 15%
- Infant is unresponsive with the mother and is usually indifferent when she leaves the room and when she returns
Anxious/ambivalent/resistant Attachment
- 10%
- Infant reacts strongly when the mother leaves the room. When mother returns, the infant shows mixed emotions, seeking close contact, then squirming away angrily
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
- 15%
- Infant displays confused and contradictory behaviour when mother returns
Parentlng Styles
Authoritative
Authoritarian
Permissive
Uninvolved
Authoritative
Warm, sensitive to child’s needs, nirturing, makes reasonable demands and encourages appropriate autonomy
Authoritrian
Cold, rejecting, makes coercive demands, frequently critical of child
Permissive
Warm, accepting, but overindulgent and inattentive
Uninvolved
Emotionally detached and depressed, little time or energy for child rearing
Theory of Moral Development
Preconventional
Conventional
Postconventional
Preconventional
- Morality centres on what you can get away with
- Will be caught and go to jail
Conventional
- Morality centres on avoiding others disapproval and obeying society’s rules
- People will think they are a criminal
Postconventional
- Morality is determined by abstracct ethical principles
- Laws are necessary to maintain order, citizens cannot break laws just because disagree with them
Stages of Psychosocial Development
- Trust versus mistrust
- Autonomy versus shame and doubt
- Initiative versus Guilt
- Industry versus inferiority
- Identity versus role confusion
- Intimacy versus isolation
- Generativity versus self absorption
- Integrity versus despair
- Identity versus role confusion
- Ages 12-20
- Adolescents seek to develop a satisfying identity and a sense of their role in society
- Failure = lack of stable identity and confusion about their adult role
- Intiacy versus isolation
- Ages 20-30
- Young adults work to establish intimate relationships with others
- Failure = Isolation
- Generativity versus self absorption
- Ages 30-65
- Middle agesd adults seek ways to influence the welfare of the next generation
- Failure = May become self absorbed
- Integrity versus despair
- Ages 65+
- Older people reflect on the lives they have lived
- Do not feel sense of accomplishment, live in fear of death
Emotional Intelligence
Ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others
What is Emotional Intelligence comprised of?
Self Awareness Self Management Self Motivation Empathy Social Skills
Self Awareness
Being aware of what you are feeling.
It is exhibited by self confidence, realistic self assessment and a self deprecating sense of humour
Self Management
The ability to manage your own emotions and impulses.
It is exhibited by trustworthiness and integrity, comfort wit ambiguity and openness to change
Self Motivation
The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures.
It is exhibited by a strong drive to achieve, optimism and high organizational commitment
Empathy
The ability to sense how others are feeling.
It is exhibited by expertise in building and retaining talent, cross cultural sensitivity and service to clients and customers
Social Skills
The ability to handle the emotions of others.
It is exhibited by persuasiveness and expertise in building and leading groups and teams
Learning
A lasting change caused by experience
Associative learning
Learning that involves forming associations between stimuli
Non Associative learning
Learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli
Habituation
A form of non associative learning whereby repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to a reduction in response
Dishabituation
A form of non associative learning whereby there is a recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habituation
Sensitization
A form of non associative learning whereby a strong stimulus results in an exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli (loud bang)
Types of Associative Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
- A form of assiciative learning between two previously unrelated stimuli that results in a learned response
- Unconditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned response, Conditioned stimulus, Conditioned Response
Unconditioned Stimulus
Triggers a response that does not have to be taught
Unconditioned Response
Response that does not have to be learned
Conditioned Stimulus
A neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus with which it has been paired
Conditioned Response
A physical response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
It is acquired through experience and is usually the same as the unconditioned response
Stimulus Generalization
What occurs when stimuli similar to the originial conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned response
Stimulus Discrimination
What occurs when an organism learns to emit a specific behaviour in the presence of a conditioned stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus
Phobia
A persistent, irrational, or obsessive fear of a specific object or situation that may arise as a result of fear conditioning
Systematic Desensitization
A process used to condition extinction of phobias though gradual exposure to the feared object or situation
Conditioned Taste Aversion
A form of classical conditioning whereby a previously neutral stimulus elicits an aversion reaction after it’s paired with illness
Operant Conditioning
Form of associative learning whereby behaviour is modified depending on its consequences
Uses behaviourism
Law of Effect
Behavious leading to rewards are more likely to occur again, while behaviours producing unpleasantness are less likely to occur again
Reinforcer
An experience that produces an increase in a certain behaviour
Positive Reinforcement
Presentation of a pleasant consequence following a behaviour to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur
Negative Reinforcement
Removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur
Punishment
An experience that produces a decrease in a particular behaviour
Positive Punishment
Presentation of an unpleasant consequence following a specific behaviour to decrease the probability of the hehaviour being repeated
Negative Punishment
Removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated
Primary Reinforcer
A stimulus that has survival value and is therefore intrinsically rewarding
Primary Punisher
A stimulus that is naturally aversive to an organism
Secondary Punisher
A stimulus that becomes aversive when associated with a primary punisher
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
Fixed Ratio
- Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined number of responses
- High response rate
Variable Ratio
- Reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses
- High response rate
Fixed Interval
- Reinforcement occurs after a fixed periods of time
- Low response rate
Variable Interval
- Reinforcement occurs after varying lengths of time
- Low response rate
Continuous Reinforcement
What occurs when behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs
Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement where the behaviour is followed by reinforcement only some of the time
Shaping
Introducing new behaviour by reinforcing close approximations of the desired behaviour
Behaviour Modification
A systematic approach to change behaviour using principles of operant conditioning
Vicarious Learning
Learning that occurs when an individual observes the consequences to another’s actions and then chooses to duplicate the behaviour or refrain from doing so
Parallel distributed Processing Model
Theory of memory suggesting that information is represented in the brain as a pattern of activation across entire neural networks
Ways to encode to Memory
Automatic
Effortful
Automatic Processing
Encoding of information with little conscious awareness or effort
Effortful processing
Encoding of information through careful attention and conscious effort
Spaced Practice Effect
Facilitated encoding of material through rehearsal situations spread out over time
Mnemonic Devices
Techniques used to enhance the meaningfulness of information as a way of making them more memorable
Varieties of Long Term Memory
Explicit Memory
Implicit Memory
Explicit Memory
Memory with conscious recall
Varieties of Explicit Memory
Semantic Memory
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Facts and knowledge
Episodic Memory
Personal experiences and events
Implicit Memory
Memory without conscious recall
Varieties of Implicit Memory
Procedural Memory
Classically Conditioned Memory
Priming
Procedural Memory
Motor skills and habits
Classically Conditioned Memory
Conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli
Priming
Earlier exposure facilitates retrieval
Stress
State brought on by any situation that threatens or appears to threaten a person’s sense of well being, thus challenging the individuals ability to cope
Acute Stressor
A stressful situation or circumstance that happens in the short term and has a definite endpoint
Chronic Stressor
A stressful situation or circumstance that is more long term and often lacks a definite endpoint
Conflict
Discomfort brought about by two or more goals or impulses perceived to be incompatible
Approach-Approach Conflict
Conflict that occurs when a person must choose between two equally desirable options
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
Conflict that occurs when a person must choose between two equally undesirable options
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Conflict that occurs wehn any available choice has both desirable and undesirable qualities
Stressor Pathways
SNS
HPA Axis
SNS Pathway
Stimulates Sympathetic Nervous System
Activates adrenal medulla
Relases norephinephrine and epinephrine
Rise in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, muscle tensions
HPA Axis
Hypothalamus stimulates Pituitary gland Releases ACTH Stimulates adrenal cortex Releases cortisol Increases blood sugar, metabolism
General Adaptation Syndrome
A three stage response to stress
Alarm, resistance, exhaustion
Type A
Personality type characterized by competitiveness, impatience, anger, and hostility
Type B
Personality type that is less aggressive, more relaxed and less hostile than Type A
Type C
A personality type characterized by difficulty in expressing or acknowledging negative feelings
Problem Fixed Coping
Coping strategies focused on dealing directly with the stressor, such as by changing the stressor in some way
Emotion Focused Coping
Coping strategies focused on changing one’s feelings about the stressor
