Microbiology Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What did Leewenhoek do?
A
He created the simple one lens microscope using medium magnification- he named cells animolecules
2
Q
Robert Hooke
A
He created the compound microscope using more than one lens. He looked at cork pieces under the compound microscope and coined the term “cells”
3
Q
What did Koch do
A
He found that postulates were the cause of disease and said that certain microorganisms caused certain diseases “one microbe, one disease”- found tuberculosis, anthrax, and cholera
4
Q
What did Koch do
A
He found that postulates were the cause of disease and said that certain microorganisms caused certain diseases “one microbe, one disease”- found tuberculosis, anthrax, and cholera
5
Q
What did Semmelweis do
A
He advocated hand washing especially after touching infected cadavers. He observed higher mortality rates in birthing hospitals that examined cadavers
6
Q
What did Lister do
A
He advocated hand washing carboxylic acid (wasn’t safe for Dr’s but safe for patients
7
Q
What did John Snow do?
A
He was known as the father of epidemiology, tracked cholera outbreak back to a water pump
8
Q
What did Jenner do
A
He created a small pox vaccine
9
Q
What did Nightengale
A
She was a nurse who advocated for antiseptic technique during the Crimean war lowering soldier mortality rates and founded the Nightengale School of Nursing
10
Q
What did Ehrlich do
A
He was known as the father of chemotherapy, he wanted to create a “magic bullet” drug that kill the pathogen but not the host
11
Q
What did Pasteur and Redi prove
A
They proved spontaneous generation was not correct
12
Q
What was Pasteur’s experiment
A
He put a nutrient rich broth called infusion into a swan neck flask and boiled it to kill microorganisms, then when do microorganisms grew, he tipped the flask on its side allowing microorganism trapped in the flask to go inside
13
Q
What was Redi’s experiment
A
Redi used three jars containing meat: one was open, one had gauze over it, and one was sealed shut. After a few days, he noticed maggots in the open jar, maggots on top of the gauze, and no maggots in the sealed jar
14
Q
What is Linneas’s naming rule
A
The name is Genus species either underlined or italicized
15
Q
What did Linneas do
A
He created a taxonomy of 3 kingdoms: plant, animal, mineral.
Gave order to taxonomy: Kingdom, class, order, family, genus, species. Said 70% same homology = same species
16
Q
What did Haeckel do
A
He proposed two additional kingdoms: protista and monera.
Added plants and fungi as well?
17
Q
What did Whittaker do
A
He created the fifth kingdom, fungi. He distinguished between eukaryotes (nucleus) and prokaryotes (No nucleus, membrane bound organelles). He also created 2 classifications above kingdom, super kingdom and empire
18
Q
What did Woese and Fox discover
A
They discovered ribosomal RNA (rRNA 16S was highly conserved and easier to access than DNA. They created the third domain Archaea so 3 are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya
19
Q
What was Otzi the Iceman found to have (3 diseases)
A
- Trichuris trichiura
- Borrelia burgdorferi (lyme disease)
- Piptoporus betulinus
20
Q
What were the ideas of why disease occured
A
Vengeful gods and miasmas
21
Q
What did Hippocrates believe
A
He created the humoral cause of disease
ex) Cold and dry = black earth bile
22
Q
What did Marcus Varro believe
A
That microbes caused disease
23
Q
What did Thucydides believe
A
Noticed people who survived illnesses the first time, were less affected by it another time
24
Q
Spallanzani’s experiment
A
He wanted to disprove spontaneous generation. He tried heating broth in open and closed vials and the one exposed to air had microorganisms
25
What additional things did Koch do? (7)
Simple staining techniques
First photomicrograph of bacteria
First photograph of bacteria in diseased tissue
Techniques for estimating bacterial number in a solution
Use of steam to sterilize growth media
Use of Petri dishes
Bacteria as distinct species
26
Wavelength of radiation in Gamma, radio, visible light
Gamma: 10^-12 to 10^-8
Radio: 10 to 10^-3
Visible light: 400nm to 700nm
27
Define refraction
This is when light bends as it goes through different mediums
28
Resolution
This is the measure of how close two objects can be while still seeing them as separate objects
29
Contrast
The difference in intensity of the background and the object or two objects
30
Wavelength
Distance between two peaks
31
Amplitude
Distance from top to bottom of peak
32
Frequency
Rate of vibration of wave
33
Interference
Light waves interacting with eachother
34
Diffraction
Light waves interacting with objects
35
Refractive Index
The measure of refraction compared to "empty space"
36
Numerical apiture
The lens's ability to gather light
37
Gram stain primary and secondary dyes
Primary, positive = crystal violet
Secondary, negative = safranin
38
Focal point
where the light entering the lens is parallel
39
What is oil immersion used for
In light microscopy, is has a similar refractive index as glass reducing light scatter and increasing resolution
40
Light microscopy
Uses light to visualize images, has a condenser lens, multiple magnification of ocular lens with objective lens. 1-2 ocular lenses
41
Dark field microscopy (a type of light microscopy)
makes a dark background and light object, works for paler bacteria, increasing contrast and details
42
Fluorescence microscope (a type of light microscopy)
1. This uses direct UV light
2. specimen radiates energy back as a longer, visible wavelength
3. UV light increases resolution and contrast
4. Some cells are naturally fluorescent; others must be stained
5. Used in immunofluorescence to identify pathogens and to make visible a variety of proteins
43
Fluorescent dyes used
Blue-DAPI red-FITC green-TRITC
44
Confocal microscopes (a type of light microscopy)
Use fluorescent dyes
Use UV lasers to illuminate fluorescent chemicals in a single plane
Resolution increased because emitted light passes through pinhole aperture
Computer constructs 3-D image from digitized images
45
2 types of electron microscopy
TEM: transmission electron
SEM: scanning electron
46
Benefits of electron microscopes and what detailed view does it have
Magnifies objects 10,000× to 100,000×
Better resolving power and magnification
Detailed views of bacteria, viruses, internal cellular structures, molecules, and large atoms
47
Difference between TEM and SEM electron microscopes
TEM electrons go through specimen to magnetic lens
SEM electrons bounce off specimen
48
Simple vs differential stain
Simple, one dye
Differential, multiple dyes
49
What does staining accomplish
It allows us to see size, arrangement, and shape of cells
50
What does differential staining accomplish
Distinguishes between different cells, chemicals, or structures
51
4 types of differential stain
Gram stain
Acid-fast stain
Endospore stain
Histological stains
52
2 common stains for histological staining
Gomori methenamine silver (GMS) stain
Hematoxylin and eosin (HE) stain
53
What do special stains do and list 3
They view microbial structures
1. negative
2. flagellar
3. fluorescent
54
What chemicals are used for electron staining and what is the purpose
It uses heavy metals, and it binds the specimen to the background
55
What 4 things do all cells posses
Cytoplasm, membrane. ribosomes, DNA
56
4 processes of life
Growth
Reproduction
Metabolism
Responsiveness
57
Structure of a phospholipid
It has a hydrophilic (polar) head and a hydrophobic (non-polar) tail
58
What are the 4 compounds that make up the phospholipid
saturated fatty acid tail, glycerol "neck", phosphate + organic group head
59
Iso-, hyper-, and hypotonic environment differences
isotonic-same solution concentration on both sides
Hypertonic- A larger amount of concentration on one side-particles will leave creating crenation
Hypotonic- A smaller amount of concentration on one side- particles will go to this side expanding the cell causing it to lyse
60
Simple vs facilitated diffusion
facilitated diffusion- ions go through channels going both directions
simple- ions pass through the phospholipids
61
specific vs non-specific facilitated diffusion
specific- only certain ions can pass through
62
Uniport, symport, antiport active transport
Uniport- one ion one direction
symport- two ions same directions
antiport- two ions different direction
63
Coupled transport
this is when energy can be used from one ion allowing another ion to come through the channel
64
Prokaryotic ribosomes are made of
30S small subunit and 50S large subunit each made of protein and RNA components
65
Eukaryote ribosomes components
80S: 60S large subunit and 40S small subunit
66
Difference between eukaryotic vs prokaryotic ribosomes
Prokaryotes- free floating, smaller,
Eukaryotes- membrane bound, larger, facilitate translation
67
DNA is located in the ___ of the Eukaryotic cell, whereas its in the ___ in a prokaryotic cell
nucleus, nucleoid
68
Since DNA in a prokaryotic cell is in the nucleoid, how does this affect its function
It can transcribe DNA and make protein at the same time
69
List the 9 structures unique to eukaryotic organisms
1. nucleus 2. Golgi 3. Smooth and 4. rough endoplasmic reticulum 5. mitochondria 6. cytoplasmic membrane 7. cytoskeleton 8. lysosomes 9. nuclear envelope
70
Function of the mitochondria
produces most of cells ATP
71
3 parts of mitochondria
1.outer membrane 2. inner membrane 3. matrix
72
Endosymbiotic theory
Eukaryotes formed from union of small aerobic prokaryotes with larger anaerobic prokaryotes
Smaller prokaryotes became internal
lost ability to exist independently
dependent on for aerobic ATP production
Aerobic prokaryotes evolved into mitochondria
Similar origin of chloroplasts
73
Evidence for endosymbiotic theory
Divide by binary fission
Both have their own genome
More closely resembles prokaryote genome
Single circular DNA
No histones
Ribosomes more closely resemble prokaryote
70S vs 80S
Antibiotics that target/inhibit prokaryote ribosomes inhibit mitochondria ribosomes
74
7 arrangements of prokaryotic cells
1.coccus (single coccus) 2. diplococcus (two coccus) 3. tetrad (4 cells in square) 4. streptococcus (chain of cocci) 5. staphylococcus (cluster of cocci) 6. bacillus (single rod) 7. streptobacillus (chain of rods)
75
6 prokaryotic cell shapes
1. coccus (round) 2. bacillus (rod) 3. vibrio (curved rod) 4. coccobacillus (short rod) 5. spirillum (spiral) 6. spirochete (long loose helix)
76
What types of organisms are prokaryotic (2)
bacteria and archaea
77
3 functions of bacterial cell wall
structure, protection, attachment
78
What is the bacteria cell wall made of (2)
peptidoglycan and lipid membrane
79
two basic types of bacterial cell wall
gram + and gram -
80
difference between gram positive and gram negative cell wall
+ has peptidoglycan and a lipid membrane whereas - has a periplasmic space
81
Where is LPS found on
gram negative bacteria
82
LPS structure and orientation
it has an O-antigen, an outer core, and an inner core. The o antigen has 50-100 repeating subunits of polysaccharides. it has 4-7 polysaccharides per unit. it is on the outer membrane of gram negative
83
LPS is an endotoxin because...
it binds the CD14/TLR4/MD2 receptor promotes secretion of proinflammatory things
84
What are the 5 steps of gram staining
first heat fix specimen
1. crystal violet
2. grams iodine
3. acetone/ethanol
4. safranin
85
Why does gram + stain purple and gram - stain pink?
Gram + has a thicker peptidoglycan layer
86
Structure of glycocalyx
Its a capsule surrounding outside of the cell made of poly- saccharides and peptides or both
Its function is to
87
two types of glycocalyx and their function
Capsule- firmly attached to cell, prevents bacteria from being recognized by the host
slime layer-loosely attached, water soluble, and allows prokaryotes to attach
88
4 flagella arrangements
mono-, amphi-, lopho, peretri- trichous
89
Run-and-tumble movement of flagella
Run-counter-clockwise rotation and moving forward
tumble- clockwise rotation, flagella separate
90
spirochetes flagella 4 parts
cell membrane, outer membrane, endoflagella, and axial filament
91
chemotaxis
overall directional movement toward the higher concentration of the attractant.
92
5 inclusions
1. volutin
2. sulfur
3. PHB
4. magnetosomes
5. carboxysome
93
describe 4 parts of flagella
Tip- end of filament
Hook- what connects the body to the filament
Filament- long thing attached to flagella
Basal Body- the whole body of the flagella
94
Structure and function of fimbriae
Bristle like projections, shorter than flagella, creates biofilms allowing bacteria to adhere to each other
95
Structure and function of pili
bacteria have 1-2 per cell, longer than fimbriae shorter than flagella, they transfer DNA between bacteria cells
96
4 things a virus has
genetic material- RNA or DNA
protein coat- capsid or capsomere
Obligate intracellular- due to host and cell specificity and tropism
can't successfully reproduce
97
3 virus shapes
complex, helical, polyhedral
98
virus capsid structure
individual proteins to create a large subunit
99
Viral envelope is composed of 2 things
Composed of phospholipid bilayer and viral specific proteins (glyco-spike proteins)
100
Enveloped viruses are more ___ than naked viruses
fragile
101
Envelopes of viruses play a role in ___ recognition
host
102
external glycoproteins on viruses dictates what?
Which cells are targeted- tropism
103
Where can glycoproteins be imbedded (2)
envelope or capsid
104
Negative sense RNA must do what to allow for translation to occur
Must convert into positive sense for translation to occur
105
top 2 important classifications for viruses
nucleic acid and presence of an envelope
106
6 stages of viral replication
Attachment
Entry/penetration
Uncoating
Biosynthesis
Assembly
Release/Budding
107
What does the first step of viral replication, attachment entail?
tropism- done through receptor on host and molecular structure on virus
108
In the second step of viral replication, entry occurs through what 2 ways
1. it tricks the cell into thinking it needs to do endocytosis
2. membrane fusion
109
entry via membrane fusion occurs in what type of virus
enveloped viruses
110
In the viral replication steps, synthesis does what
the goal of the virus is to make genetic material for progeny (offspring)
111
The fifth step in viral replication, assembly, when does this occur
When there's a sufficient amount of proteins it occurs
112
Difference in assembly of enveloped vs naked viruses
naked viruses leave when the cell lyses and dies
Enveloped leave via budding, pinching off or exocytosis- take pieces to get through
113
For genome replication, DNA viruses require ___
RNA polymerases
114
How do DNA viruses get ahold of RNA polymerases
they go into the nucleus since this is where DNA to RNA occurs for genome replication
115
What are retro viruses
The start as positive sense viruses and are able to convert RNA back into DNA. it integrates its own DNA in yours through viral integrase
116
List the 5 viral effects on its host
1. Lytic infection- cell lyses and dies
2. Latent infection- the virus stays present but isn't infecting (cold sores)
3. Cell fusion
4. Persistent infection is a slow release of virus and doesn't leave host
5. Transformation/cancer development- tumor cell created and divides
117
viroid
Circular pieces of self replicating RNA
118
Virusoid
Non-self replicating ssRNA
Requires a “helper virus”- Hep B
119
3 prion diseases that affect the PRNP protein found in the brain
1. chronic wasting disease
2. mad cow disease
3. Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD)
120
what are prions made of
proteins
121
3 ways someone can get prion diseases
sporadic , genetic, acquired
122
2 things prions do
1. cause neurodegenerative diseases
2. replicate without DNA or RNA
123
Prion diseases cause loss of ___ and ___ function
loss of coordination and cognitive function
124
Accumulation of PrPsc causes brain tissue to take on a ___ appearance (for prion diseases)
spongy
125
Prion diseases are always ___ and have no ___
always fatal and have no cure
126
DNA viruses often have to be ___ into the nucleus
trafficked
127
DNA viruses often causes these 3 effects on the host
1. latency
2. persistent infection
3. cancer
128
Which of the following organelles is not part of the endomembrane system?
peroxisome
129
Which type of cytoskeletal fiber is important in the formation of the nuclear lamina?
intermediate filaments
130
Sugar groups may be added to proteins in which of the following?
golgi apparatus
131
Which of the following structures of a eukaryotic cell is not likely derived from endosymbiotic bacterium?
outer membrane
132
Which of the following is not composed of microtubules?
desmosomes
133
T/F: Mitochondria in eukaryotic cells contain ribosomes that are structurally similar to those found in prokaryotic cells.
true
134
Microfilaments are composed of ______________ monomers.
actin
135
Who wrote the general morphology of organisms
Ernst Haechel
136
Low G+C gram positive bacteria 3
Lactobacillales
streptococcus
clostridia
137
High G+C gram positive bacteria (3)
Streptomyces
Mycobacterium
Bifidobacterium
138
some Bacteroides can break down ___ an example of this is ___ ___
cellulose, grazing mammals
139
Gram negative alphaproteobacteria example
oligotrophs- chlamydia
140
Gram negative betaproteobacteria
Eu- and copiotrophs. Neisseria
141
Gram negative gammaproteobacteria
Enterics- vibrio and Escherichia
142
Gram negative gammaproteobacteria are the largest group in terms of # of ___
species
143
Epsilonproteobacteria is the ___ group in terms of species
smallest
144
Epsilonproteobacteria gram negative 2 examples
Bacteroides and spirochetes
145
Bacteroides are important in human and grazing mammal _
guts
146
Gram negative nonproteobacteria that is phototrophic is
cyanobacteria
147
Gram positives bacteria high G+C
class: actinobacteria
genus: streptomyces
genus: mycobacterium
148
Gram positive low G+C bacteria (1 with class,order,genus & 1 with class and 2 genus)
Class: clostridium Order: lactobacillales Genus: streptococcus
Class: bacilli Genus: staphylococcus Genus: bacillus
149
What does G+C refer to?
The proportion of guanine and cytosine nucleotides
