Microbiology Flashcards
What colour does Gram-positive bacteria stain with the Gram stain?
Purple/blue
What colour does Gram-negative bacteria stain with the Gram stain?
Pink/red
What causes the differences in staining in bacteria between Gram positive and negative?
Gram-positive bacteria have cell membrane and surrounding cell wall
Gram negative have cytoplasmic membrane, surrounding peptidoglycan and then an outer membrane
Stains bind to the peptidoglycan, which cannot happen in gram negative, producing different colours
Give examples of pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria and the associated disease
Escherichia coli
Salmonella (tyhimurium- food poisoning, typhi- thypoid)
Shigella (dysentry)
Vibrio cholerae (cholera)
Neisseria (meningitidis- meningitis, gonorrhoeae- gonorrhea)
Give examples of pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria and the associated disease
Staphylococcus aureus (skin disease, endocarditis, bacteraemia, joint diseases, pneumonia) Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumonia, meningitis, otitis media) Streptococcus pyogenes (tonsilitis, necrotising fasciitis, bactereamia, scarlet fever)
Give examples of pathogenic mycobacterium and the associated disease
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) Mycobacterium leprae (leprosy)
Give examples of extracellular pathogens
Staphylococcus
Streptococcus
Yersinia
Neisseria
Give examples of intracellular pathogens
Listeria Shigella Salmonella Mycobacterium Coxiella Chlamydia (obligate)
Do Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria have type III secretions?
Gram-negative
What two things are required for motility and invasion?
Flagella
Type III secretion system
What are type III secretions?
Similar to flagella machine but delivers virulence proteins (effectors) into host cell
How does Salmonella invade host cells?
Via type III secretions system
Bacertial virulene proteins (effectors) induce actin polymerisation, membrane ruffling and bacterial internalisation
How does Listeria invade cells, become mobile and spread between cells?
Free bacterium is phagocytosed by host cells by zipper mechanism
Bacteria escaped the endosome and initiates actin nucleation. This assembles an actin tail making the bacteria motile.
Protrusion formation allows cell-to-cell spread, and as it has come from a neighbouring cell it is not detected as foreign
What are the three mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer?
Transformation
Transduction
Conjugation
How do bacteria replicate?
Binary fission
What is the process of binary fission?
1) Duplication of chromosome
2) Continued growth of the cell
3) Division into two cells
What is the process of transformation in horizontal gene transfer?
Free DNA (a single-stranded segment) is taken into the bacterium using DNA uptake proteins
What is the process of transduction in horizontal gene transfer?
A phage (virus) infects the bacterium, replicating it's DNA inside the bacterium and cutting bacterial DNA into small pieces. Some bacterial DNA may then be packaged into phage heads. Bacterium lyses and new phage particles are released. Phage particle injects bacterial DNa into new bacterial cell Injected DNa may be incorporated into bacterial chromosome
What is the process of conjugation in horizontal gene transfer?
Donor bacterium has a transmissible plasmid
Two bacteria form a mating bridge
Plasmid enters mating bridge and is replicated
When bacteria separate they each have a plasmid copy
What is the pathogenicity island?
The driving force of evolution in bacteria. They are a distinct class of genomic island acquired through horizontal gene transfer
Give examples of routes of infection by bacteria
Intrinsic and extrinsic Upper respiratory tract Urogenital tract Broken skin Gastrointestinal tract (faecal-oral)
How are upper respiratory tract infections usually acquired?
Usually extrinsically-acquired from respiratory tract droplets or airbourne
Hand transmission can act as intermediate
What are the consequences of a bacterial infection acquired via the upper respiratory tract?
Upper respiratory tract infection (Pharyngitis, tonsilitis, sinusitis)
Lower respiratory tract infection (Bronchitis, pneumonia, pneumonitis)
Spread to adjacent tissue (Brain abscess, meningitis, empyema (pleural space), pericarditis)
Spread to bloodstream (Bacteraemia e.g.pneumococcal bacteraemia, meningococcal bacteraemia)
Where do intrinsic infections of the urogenital tract occur? Give examples
Large intestine
e.g. E. coli, Bacteroides ap. Proteis spp, Enterobacter spp, Klebsiella, Enterococci, Streptococcus group B, Candida/yeast
What types of extrinsic infections occur in the urogenital tract? Give examples
Nosocomial infections (Urinary catheters) Sexually transmitted infections (Neiserria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Treponema pallidum (syphilis), HIV, HSV- viruses)
What are the consequences of urogenital infections?
UTI (cystitis-bladder, pyelonephritis-kidney)
Pelvic infection/STD (Gonococcal urethritis, pelvic inflammatory disease, tubo-ovarian abscess)
Give examples of pregnancy-related urogenital infections
Neonatal group B strep infection
Neonatal gonococcal conjunctivitis
Maternal endometritis (group A strep)
Give examples of infections that target broken skin, and where they usually occur
Skin and mouth bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Strepptococcus pyogenes)
Recent antibiotics/hospital (MRSA, pseudomonas)
Surgery/ bowel flora exposure (all of the above + Gram-negatives)
Unusual pathogens (Dog bites- pasteurella multocida, Medicinal leeches- aeromonas hydrophilia, Soil- clostridium tetani)
What are the consequences of infections via broken skin?
Superficial infection Cellulitis Abscess Fasciitis Myositis Gangrene/necrotic infection Bacteraemia
What are the consequences of an infection acquired via the gastrointestinal tract?
Diarrhoeal illnesses (Vomiting only (e.g. toxins), diarrhoea and vomiting, diarrhoea only, dysentery- bloody diarrhoea)
Bacteremic/ systemic infections (Typhoid (S.typhi), Listeriosis (L. monocytogenes), Salmonellosis and septic arthritis, aortitis)
Toxin-mediated disease- Diarrhoea and vomitting (e.g. S. aureus enterotoxin), neurological (e.g.botulism)
What are the five factors that influence a pathogen’s infectivity?
Transmission to host
Ability to colonise host
Tropism- find unique niche (in or outside host)
Replicate
Immune evasion at site of colonisation or niche
What is infectivity?
The ability of a pathogen to establish an infection
What four factors influence a pathogen’s virulence?
Toxin production
Enzymes that degrade host molecules
Interruption of normal host processes
Complete immune evasion
What is virulence?
Virulence is how able a pathogen is, to cause disease
What is infectious dose? What is it affected by? (5) Give examples
Infectious dose is the number of bacteria required to initiate an infection. It can be affected by:
- Route of transmission (Stomach acid means high dose required)
- Ability to conolise (Enteropathogenic E. coli “EPEC” type 3 secretions for adherence)
- Tropism and motility (Vibrio cholerae- high infective dose but flagella motility may help it reach gut epithelium)
- Replication speed (Mycobacterium tuberculosis- low infective dose, very low replication rate, able to survive inside macrophages and resist killing)
- Immune evasion site
What is the pathogenicity of Vibro cholerae?
Enormous infective dose: >1000000 Flagella used to penetrate mucus Then makes 2 component toxin A + B Binds to GM gangliosides on gut Triggers cAMP Chloride efflux Na and water follow Profuse diarrhoea ("rice water stools")
What is the effect of group B strep on neonates?
Genital tract colonisation with group B strep (from GI tract)- harmless to 30-40% of women leads to invasive group B strep infection in neonates: meningitis, septicaemia, death
What is an antibiotic?
An antimicrobial agent produced by a microorganism that kills of inhibits other microorganisms
What does a bactericidal antibiotic do?
Kills bacteria
What does a bacteriostatic antibiotic do?
Stops bacteria growing
Antibiotic resistance usually occurs soon after the emergence of a new antibiotic with the exception of which antibiotics? (2)
Vancomycin
Erythromycin
What effect does antibiotic resistance have on patients?
Increased morbidity
Increased mortality
Increased time to effective therapy
Requirement for additional approaches (e.g. surgery)
Use of expensive therapy (newer drugs)
Use of more toxic drugs (e.g. vancomycin)
Use of less effective ‘second choice’ antibiotics
What are the major Gram-negative antibiotic resistant bacterial pathogens?
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CF, burn wound infections. Survives on abiotic surfaces)
- E. coli (ESBL, Klebsiella spp NDM-1→ GI infection, neonatal meningitis, septicaemia, UTI)
- Salmonella spp. (MDR- GI infection, typhoid fever)
- Acinetobacter baumannii (MDRAB→ opportunistic, wounds, UTI, pneumonia (VAP). Survives on abiotic surfaces)
- Neisseria gonorrhoeae
What are the major Gram-positive antibiotic resistant bacterial pathogens?
- Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA, VISA→ Wound and skin infection, pneumonia, septicaemia, infective endocarditis)
- Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumonia, septicaemia)
- Clostridium difficile (pseudomembranous colitis, antibiotic-associated diarrhoea)
- Enterococcus spp (VRE→ UTI, bacteraemia, infective endocarditis)
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MDRTB, XDRTB→tuberculosis)
What is the reason for the high rate of hospital acquired infections?
High density of susceptible people
Presence of pathogen
Staff vectors
Open wounds
Inserted medical devices (e.g. IV catheters)
Disruption of normal flora due to antibiotic prophylaxis/therapy
What is the mechanism of action of beta-lactams? Give antibiotic examples
Interferes with synthesis of peptidoglycan component of bacterial cell wall by binding to penicillin-binding proteins. PBPs catalyse a number of steps in the synthesis of peptidoglycans.
Beta-lactams bind PBPs with high affinity and inhibit their function
(except PBP2a of MRSA)
e.g. Penicillin, methicillin, cephalothin
What is the mechanism of action of tetracycline?
Bacteriostatic, broad spectrum antibiotic. Inhibits protein synthesis. Binds to 16S component of the 30S ribosomal subunit, preventing interaction of charged aminoacyl-tRNAs with the mRNA/ribosome complex. This prevents the elongation of the peptide
What is the mechanism of action of chloramphenicol?
Bacteriostatic, broad spectrum antibiotic. Inhibits protein synthesis. Binds to 50S ribosomal subunit and blocks peptide transfer step. Often used topically due to toxicity, however AB resistance is renewing interest in chloramphenicol as a systematic therapeutic.
What are the four mechanisms of antibiotic resistance? What antibiotic uses all four of these?
1) Altered target site
2) Drug inactivation
3) Efflux
4) Altered metabolism
Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses all four mechanisms
What approaches are used to prevent emergence of drug resistant bacteria and nosocomial infections?
Better prescribing practices
Infection control
Combination therapy
Narrow vs broad spectrum antibiotic therapy
What are the main causes of human fungal infections? (4)
Candida albicans
Coccidioides immitis
Histoplasma capsulatum
Aspergillus fumigatus
How do fungi digest their food?
Extracellularly- they secrete hydrolytic enzymes which break down biopolymers to be absorbed for nutrition. Fungi are saphrophytes (live suspended in their own food source)
What types of illness are caused by fungi? (3)
1) Allergies
2) Mycotoxicoses
3) Mycoses
Give examples of allergies caused by fungi
Rhinitis
Dermatitis
Asthma
Allergic broncho-pulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA→ occurs in 2.5% of asthmatics)
What are mycotoxicoses? Give examples
A toxic reaction caused by ingestion or inhalation of a mycotoxin. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of moulds that exert a toxic effect on animals and humans
e.g. Amanita species, Psilocybin
What symptoms occur in Amanita species? What therapy?
Breathing problems, dizziness, severe vomiting, diarrhoea, dehydration, hepatic and renal failure 6 days later
Therapy- Gastric lavage and charcoal, liver transplant