mgp cc - geography Flashcards
Q1,What are inland waterways?
1) Network of river, canals, back waters, creeks → Transportation + hinterland connectivity 2) 14500 km navigable waterway → 111 projects → National Waterways Act 2016 – Inland water way authority of India → Statutory → build infrastructure + surveying + regulation”
Q2,What was the need for promoting inland waterways?
1) Low cost + Low capital + operational ease + maintenance + Low energy consumption; 2) Fuel efficiency + Fewer emission + Meet INDC targets → Process towards decarbonization. 3) Increase capacity (goods + passenger) + Under utilization of navigable waterway 4) Growth → Industrial growth + tourism; reduce logistic cost; reduce congestion of roads 5) Fewer accidents → safer + reliable medium; Accessibility → between remote areas 6) Private investment → inland vessel fleet → Market forces + bigger & better vessels”
Q3,Where are the different inland waterways located?
1) Criteria → capability of navigation, continuous, interest of more than one state, safety etc. 2) 13 waterway developmental activity underway → NW 1 → Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly River system → 4 states → Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal; (b) NW 2 → Sadiya - Dhubri (Brahmaputra); (c) NW 3 → Kollam-Kottapuram stretch (West Coast Canal) 3) NW 1, 2 → alluvial rivers → braiding, meandering, water level fluctuation etc. Pre requisite → Fairway → depth + width; navigational aids; multi modal terminals (road + rail) 4) NW 3 → tidal canal → predictable + uniform tidal variation; nominal maintenance”
Q4,What are the impacts of inland waterways on economy?
1) One time capital investment (Brownfield); No land acquisition → Time + cost overrun avoid 2) Employment generation → Supporting projects → Canals + Inter linking of river + JMVP 3) Jal Marg vikas project → Multi modal + Inter modal terminals + Roll on roll off ferry service + navigation lock (Farakka) + depth dredging, integrated vessel repair + River information system; Varanasi – Haldia stretch; World bank funded; PPP model 4) Reduce import bill → Fuel consumption reduce → Transportation of bulk goods 5) North East connectivity → Growth inclusive; New markets → Boost rural demand”
Q5,What are the issues in implementing inland waterways?
1) River diversion → irrigation, industrial needs; reduced depth + shoal formation; 2) Excessive silt loads → erosion of uplands → bad catchment management + deforestation → LADIS Least Available Depth Information System) → real time data + transportation 3) River conservancy measures inadequate → gradual deterioration + inter state/intra country river dispute; Inadequate vertical + horizontal clearances → plying vessels → economic size → traditional waterway routes 4) Adequate terminal size lacking; Ecological sensitivity of rivers→ Ex: Gangetic dolphins 5) Displacement of fishing community, people dependent on riverbed cultivation”
Q1,What are Dedicated Freight Corridors?
1) High speed + high-capacity railway corridor → Transportation of freights → safe + efficient 2) Project → Ministry of Railways; 6 freight corridors → Western DFC, Eastern DFC, North-South, East-West (Bengal-Maharashtra), East-South (Bengal-Andhra Pradesh), South-South 3) Implementing Body → Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India (DFCCIL)- 2006 4) Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (WDFC) → Dadri - Jawaharlal Nehru Port (1468km); JICA funded; 4 states → Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh 5) Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor (EDFC) → Ludhiana → Dankuni (west Bengal) 1760 km Route → Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand & West Bengal; Coal mines + Thermal power plant + industrial cities + Feeder route; World Bank funded;”
Q2,What was the need for setting up Dedicated Freight Corridors?
1) Congestion → increasing freight volume; increase in infrastructure, increased axle load, reduction → turn-round time, reduced unit cost of transportation, rationalization of tariffs 2) Saturated Golden Quadrilateral Freight Corridor → 55% revenue earning freight 3) Single tracks → Passenger + freight trains → Failing share of goods traffic (only 36%) 4) Under investment of Railways → Attract private investment + Ease of doing business”
Q3,What are the advantages of Dedicated Freight Corridors?
1) Better freight operation + handling + movement (speed); Complement port led development 2) Revenue for railways → Market share + non fare revenue → up gradation of technology 3) Inflationary diesel fuel → indigenous electric power → Current account deficit improve 4) Technology transfer + operational expertise + Skill + capacity. Ex: Delhi metro 5) Facilitate industrial activity + multi-modal value-addition services hubs + Industrial corridor 6) Double stack technology → Passenger trains → reduced ticket prices + increased access 7) Reduced emissions + green house gases → reduced pollution + earn carbon credits”
Q4,What are the Challenges to setting up Dedicated Freight Corridors?
1) Private freight terminals + Logistics parks → hurdles in implementation → Risk + uncertainty 2) Road (rural areas) → doesn’t suit NHAI standards → heavy vehicular traffic 3) High land cost + inflexible contractual terms → PPP risk sharing+ objective contractual 4) Railways → Part of supply chain not a stand alone competitor 5) Delay → almost a decade old → Land acquisition (titling) → loan approval (mounting NPA) 6) Passing through multiple states→ file movement → administrative delays → sub federalism”
Q1,What are industrial corridors?
1) Economic ecosystem → Transportation corridor(nerve) → 2 major economic center 2) Competitiveness in manufacturing → world class infrastructure + reduced logistics cost 3) National Industrial Corridor programme → industrial cities + townships + investment 4) Multi modal connectivity (inland waterway, Freight corridor) + ““Plug & Play”” infrastructure 5) Building resilient + sustainable future; SDG 11; Convergence with Smart City Mission”
Q2,What are the different locations of industrial corridors?
1) 11 corridors → Hub and spoke model → Cities act as engine of growth → Employment + Socio-economic development Major Corridors → Delhi-Mumbai; Chennai-Bengaluru (JICA); Bengaluru-Mumbai (UK); Hyderabad-Bengaluru; Amritsar-Kolkata; East Coast Corridor etc. 2) DMIC → Japan-India coordination → High Speed – High Capacity”” connectivity; 3) Amritsar-Kolkata Industrial Corridor (AKIC) → backbone → Eastern dedicated freight corridor 4) Special Purpose Vehicle setup; National Industrial Corridor Development & Implementation Trust (NICDIT)→ unified development + coordinating body 5) Defence Industrial Corridors → 2 DIC → (a) UP (6 nodes → Aligarh, Agra, Chitrakoot, Jhansi, Kanpur, Lucknow); (b) Tamil Nadu (5 nodes-> Chennai, Coimbatore, Hosur, Salem, Tiruchirappalli) → defence manufacturing ecosystem + investment; indigenous production national security; self reliance; reduce import bill; MSME → direct,indirect employment”
Q3,What is the significance of industrial corridors in India?
1) Economic benefits → Logistics infrastructure, freight handling, feeder connectivity + industrialization+ urbanization; economies of scale; Reverse distress migration; hinterland development; cluster model → hub and spoke model; demographic dividend 2) Socioeconomic benefits → raise per capita incomes → better social indicators → Technical educational/skill training institutes; Increasing labor productivity 3) Manufacturing → competitiveness increase; Linking major cities → Federalism strengthened”
Q4,What are the Challenges to setting up industrial corridors?
1) Land acquisition → Legal hurdles + compensation issue + eviction of locals; Environment clearances + Eco – sensitive areas → Sustainability Versus Economic growth debate 2) Investment friendly policies; Friendly taxation system → clearly defined tax liabilities; 3) Agriculture land diverting → Land stress, food security → protest by farmers 4) Complexity → Inter ministerial + Intra regional + inter state → administrative issues 5) Relative comparative advantage of industries→ Integration with global value chain. 6) Existing forward and backward linkages + Skill availability; Power and water availability 7) Nurturing corridor → MSME supplier ecosystem → decentralized + equitable development 8) Labor reforms → progressive → balance wages + quality of work + institutional reform”
Q1,What are the factors that influence location of Petroleum refineries?
1) 2 major → a) Upstream/exploration/production/drilling; b) Downstream/Refining 2) Exploration → creating geological survey; land rights; production activities; onshore + offshore drilling; Geological survey → testing subsoil → onshore + seismic imaging → offshore; Proven reserves → extent a company predicts its production economically viable/recoverable oil and gas in place → time bound + Present level of technology 3) Refining → Field based refinery → transport + proximity → Off shore sites → export based facilities; Intermediate Locations → Transported through pipelines; Market Locations → densely populated areas; Coastal sites; Petrochemicals industry locations → Finished product; Political stability → Middle East;”
Q2,What are the different types of Petroleum crude?
1) 100 crude oils → International trade → 2 Benchmarks → West Texas Intermediate, Brent 2) Brent crude → four different fields → North Sea; Light (low density) + sweet (low sulfur); refining → diesel fuel, transportation → easy → off shore → port connectivity; West Texas Intermediate → extracted from US + Supplies → landlocked + very light + very sweet + ideal for gasoline refineries; Shale gas → natural gas + sedimentary rocks → drilling + fracturing 3) Hydraulic Fracturing → High pressure liquid + Slick water fracturing+ extraction from coal bed+ Tight sand formations + shale formations; Bulk of US energy”
Q3,What are the issues with Petroleum refineries in India?
1) Shortage of Crude → import dependency; demand → lighter product; production deficiency 2) Dependency on foreign countries → Geo-politics; less diversification in trading partners 3) Price → International fluctuations → inflationary + High import bill; Pollution tax 4) Shortage → Refining Capacity → expansion → new refineries + setting up new joint ventures 5) Exploration → new reserves → Firm valuations small → absence of Global giant+ presence 6) Technology issues → production → middle distillates, fire fighting systems → R&D is less 7) Market-Determined Pricing System → Common good → regulated + PSU presence”
Q4,What are the future Prospects of India’s Petroleum product refineries?
1) Investing in capacity → Dual → acid gas + sulfuric acid regeneration; Upward + downward linkage → Merging of HPCL + ONGC; 2) Hydrocarbon exploration Licensing policy → (a) production sharing regime → revenue sharing regime; (b) Open Acreage Licensing Programme → transparency + stream lining procedure; (c) reduced royalty rates, marketing and pricing freedom, round the year bidding; (d) single license → conventional + unconventional hydrocarbon 3) Strategic petroleum reserve → Stockpile → meet contingencies → shock of crude oil → Places → Visakhapatnam, Mangalore, Padur, Chandikhole, Bikaner; Need → reduce import dependency, overcoming volatility in prices; Energy security; Strategic Cooperation (UAE)”
Q1,What are the factors that influence location of Fertilizer industry?
1) Presence of oil refinery → nitrogenous fertilizers → naphtha. Ex: Hazira fertilizer plant. Proximity to Natural gas → Urea + Nitrogen → input (Haber process); Efficient; Cleaner 2) Iron & steel industry → steel slug + coke + lignite; Pipeline Infrastructure → Transportation → distributed production→ Sea based location → Port facilities → HBJ pipeline → Bijapur 3) Availability of market + Raw material (mineral phosphate, raw potash material)”
Q2,What is the status of Fertilizer industry in India?
1) Core industry → 2nd largest consumer of urea → 2 type → Primary + Secondary + Micro nutrient 2) Primary → Nitrogenous (Urea), Phosphatic (di-ammonium phosphate –DAP), Potassic 3) Secondary→ Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfur; Micro nutrient → Iron, Zinc, Boron, Chloride 4) High domestic consumption → weak production (private sector);”
Q3,What are the issues with fertilizer industry in India?
1) Fertilizer subsidy → Increasing, Political populism→ subsidy payment under delayed; 2) MRP → urea → statutorily fixed; MRP→ Phosphatic, Potassic Fertilizers market controlled 3) Disproportionate use of Urea → price control; Import Dependence → heterogeneous → raw material + feed stock regulated; Volatile International Prices → Controls on movement & distribution; demand-supply gap; Black marketing, routing to other destination 4) National Urea policy → maximizing indigenous urea production; energy efficiency; rationalize subsidy; timely payment; Neem coating (delay release of Urea); 5) Streamline policy for P&K fertilizers → balanced fertilizer use → ‘reasonable’ MRP issue”
Q4,How is fertilizer industry overcoming the problem of pollution?
1) Nitrogen pollution → Eutrophication → Increase BOD; Soil salinization; Green house gas emission; Fluoride pollution → Phospho gypsum → soil leaching → enters food chain 2) Solutions → Market linking → prices; Reform → sluggish PSU → revive growth; Loan write off 3) Vibrant home-grown fertilizer industry; Frontier technologies; Greater accountability → Procurement, storage, distribution; 4) Bio fertilizer → Using microorganisms → enhance yield of crops → soil fertility + reduce surface runoff + pollution; Ex: → Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Blue green algae bio fertilizer 5) Nano urea → nano scale nitrogen particles → increase surface area → urea uptake efficiency increases; 6) Fertigation → fertilizers + irrigation water → Increases water use efficiency + rate of conversion into yield → Higher + pH of solution → balanced”
Q1,What geological process led to the formation of coal?
1) Most abundant fossil fuel → 2/3rd of energy → India → 10% of global coal reserve 2) Carbonation → Dead vegetation + fauna → carbon rich coal → High temperature + Pressure 3) Carboniferous period → peatification and coalification; Bacterial action → Peat; 4) Energy in coal → Proportional → % of carbon content = More depth = more pressure + heat 5) Three main types: lignite, bituminous, anthracite. Coal deposits → India → Gondwana 6) Coalification → process → Peat → lignite → sub-bituminous → bituminous → anthracite”
Q2,What are the location factors responsible for setting up coal based industries?
1) Gondwana coal → charcoal → labour + technology; Coal seams; Near to iron and thermal power plants; Bulky raw material + transportation; 2) Changing pattern due to access to → Port+inland waterways; Stringent norms 3) Rat hole mining → primitive + hazardous; pit → 3-4 feet diameter; vertical shafts; Illegal → Banned by NGT; Environment fall outs → increase acidic content of water bodies →acid run off”
Q3,What is the status of coal sector in India?
1) Coal → input → Steel (in coke form) → India only 15% coal reserve is coking coal; 2) Energy source → cement industry → later phased out → fly ash use; 10% of IIP 3) Challenges → High import dependence; Mining → clearing of forest → Delay in project approval; land acquisition; technology; monopolization of upstream sector CIL; Bottlenecks → Domestic transportation + logistic + hinterland connectivity; Coal block policy uncertainty → Captive/Non-Captive mining; Run of Mine project; Coal Mafia; 4) Gov Initiatives → Mineral Laws (Amendment) Ordnance 2020 → democratise the sector 5) 2015 Coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act; UTTAM → Transparency; SHAKTI scheme, Coal Mitra, Online Coal Clearance System, Coal Allocation Monitoring System, Commercial mining → revenue sharing mechanism”
Q4,How is the process of decarbonisation affecting coal sector in India?
1) Decarbonisation → process of reducing the amount of carbon → CO2 → atmosphere 2) Constraints → Location + ownership factors + type of user constraint → Spatial distribution of energy; Coal → East + Central; Solar → South + West; Energy divide; tax revenue; 3) Need → Coal → dirty fuel → Mercury + SO2 + Black Carbon → Acid rain; Health externality→ lung, heart disease; Price parity; Acid mine drainage → exposure to Sulfur 4) Dependence on Coal → Electricity access + raise agriculture productivity; Cheap power → development aspirations; reliable + scalable; Employment generation- Ex: Rust belt USA 5) Policy pathways → job creation in low-carbon industries; robust low-carbon economic growth; peaking; Transition of workforce → coal mining to green jobs; energy access;”
Q5,Why is there a growing concern over shortage of coal recently?
1) Monsoon → uneven distribution → heavy rainfall → mining + transportation; Post Pandemic recovery → growth → demand; lean coal inventories → thermal power plants 2) Decline in renewable → hydro + gas (increase in price) + nuclear (maintenance shutdown) 3) Increasing international coal price → imports declined by power plants → non power industries consumption increased.”
Q1,What are the factors that influence location of iron and steel industry?
1) Raw material → Source, heavy + weight losing raw material. Ex: TISCO – Chota Nagpur 2) Markets → heavy + bulky, transportation cost → high; minimize transportation cost 3) Labour → Cheap labour availability, Ex: Rourkela → Orissa; Bhilai → Chattisgarh 4) Availability of electricity → hydro+ Availability of water → Cooling; Ex: Bokaro → Damodar 5) Near ore mines → Manganese, Limestone, Dolomite; Near coal fields, Electricity smelting 6) Policy certainty → Gov subsidy, rebate, establishment costs, tax rebates, land acquisition”
Q2,Why is there a changing spatial pattern & distribution of iron and steel industry?
1) Reasons → Changing pattern → Consumption + Production + exchange of goods & services 2) Changing nature → Chinese production → 220% increase; Concentration → production → developing countries; Raw material concentration; Cross border → Acquisition + Merger 3) Within India → Deregulation, high priority industries → automatic approval; lowering of import duty → capital goods; Development of ports → Coastal location”
Q3,What are the issues with iron and steel industry in India?
1) Low steel import → Indian industry hit; Domestic steel company → losses; Cascading effect → Bad loan to the Banking sector; Strategic core industry → national security 2) Steps against Chinese Steel dumping → Anti-Dumping duty; Import tax → Boost domestic company; removal of quantitative restrictions on exports; Reduction → Rail + Power tariff; rationalize → coking coal classification 3) Measures to boost demand → Infrastructure, construction, rural and agro - based industries. Research and Development → setting → Institutes; 4) National Steel policy → steel production capacity → 300 MT by 2030; inter- sectoral growth; Self-sufficiency → Production; Channelizing → MSME; internationally competitive manufacturing capabilities; Domestic demand; Cost-efficient; Increase Per capita consumption → 160kg; Net steel exporter; Quality standards for Steel Production; 5) India’s competitive advantage → steel production → indigenous availability of high-grade iron ore and non-coking coal; Contributor → manufacturing sector”
Q4,How is steel industry overcoming the problem of pollution?
1) Air-polluting emissions → metal oxide + smoke + fume + dust + organic, inorganic gases 2) Obsolete technology → inefficient system; Poor quality of ore, coke → Impurity → Leached 3) Covered under EPA, Need statutory clearance → Regulatory oversight; NMEEE → PAT 4) Iron & Steel Slag Utilization → construction & road making, soil conditioning, rail ballast 5) Reduce carbon footprint → Coke Dry Quenching, Energy efficient technology, Secondary Fume Extraction System, Regenerative Burners → Re-heating Furnaces, Re-use scrap”
Q1,How are oceanic currents formed?
1) Ocean water movement → Horizontal → waves + currents; Vertical → Tides + Up - welling; 2) Ocean current → homogeneous block → definite path + direction; Primary force → heat + wind + gravity + Coriolis; Secondary force → Temperature + salinity difference 3) Solar insolation → Heat → expansion; Winds → magnitude, direction; Gravity → water down + gradient variation; Coriolis force → right → Northern hemisphere and Left → Southern 4) Secondary forces → vertical mobility; High salinity → Denser → Sinks; Cold water → Sinks”
Q2,What are the characteristics of oceanic currents?
1) Types → Depth → Surface + deep water (variation → Density + gravity); Temperature → Cold (high → Low latitude) + warm (warm → cold, low + middle latitudes); thermo - haline circulation 2) Northern hemisphere → clockwise; Southern hemisphere → anti - clockwise; 3) Warm currents → cool sea; Cold currents → Warmer seas; Convergence + Divergence; 4) Shape + geography → land forms; Some names of Currents Boundary Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean North South North South West→ warm Gulf stream Brazil Kuroshio East Australian Somali, Agulhas Mozambique East → Cold Canary Benguela California Peru West Australian”
Q3,How the oceanic currents results into Climatic changes across the globe?
1) Off-shore trade wind desert → Sahara, Kalahari, Mojave, Monte, Peru, Great Sandy 2) Western coast → Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt → descending air, relative humidity low, 3) Cold current → mists, fogs; Desiccating effect → cold Peruvian Current → Chilean coast; 4) Warm current → heavy rainfall + high humidity → High evaporation; increase cloud cover”
Q4,What are the effects of oceanic currents on human activities?
1) Fishing → Mixing → cold + warm → richest fishing ground; Ex: Grand Banks, Japan coast 2) Replenish oxygen → growth of Plankton; Climate moderation, Precipitation, Growth → coral 3) Navigation → aided by Current → Strong near Surface; Ships follow routes; 4) Rain fed crop cultivation → agricultural activities, Forestry (lumbering activities), Grassland ecosystem → encouraged pastoralism, Desert Safari tourism → Namib desert”
Q1,How can soil erosion be reduced?
1) Natural + anthropological process; Medium – Water → Sheet + Rill + Steam + Coastal 2) 90% → water → Hydro dynamic force; Rill + Gully erosion → Punjab → Chos; 3) Reason → Rainfall Erosivity + Soil Erodibility + Topography + Soil surface cover + deforestation + Overgrazing + Faulty practices of agriculture+ road construction+ land use changes 4) Consequences → Primary sector + qualitative loss of productivity → economy; agriculture; loss of nutrient; Siltation → reduce water holding capacity-> flooding; wetland → reduce 5) Conservation → contour tillage + bunding + check dams + terrace farming + checking the extension of gullies + strip cropping + shelter belts + afforestation + ban shifting cultivation, controlled grazing + mixed cropping + mixed farming +rotation of crops + mulching 6) Gov steps → Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) + Desert Development Programme (DDP) + Integrated Wasteland Development Project (IWDP) + PMKSY + Rural development”
Q2,How is increasing soil salinity affecting food security?
1) Reasons → Irrigation, poorly drained + evaporation, leaching of salt, water table shallow+ seepage zones, over use of fertilizer, over extraction groundwater; sea water intrusion 2) Outcome → Chemical composition → natural water resources; poor soil structures; loss of fertile soils; yield + productivity reduces; Taxonomic replacement → halo-tolerant species; 3) Food security → reducing net cultivable area + choice of cultivable crops reduce + uncertain+ unstable livelihood security; low incomes; 4) Remedial measures → Nutrient based subsidy program, Pramparagat krishi vikas yojna, improving drainage, reducing surface evaporation, chemical treatments – Gypsum”
Q3,How is changing nature of land use causing soil desertification India?
1) Land degradation → climatic variations + human activity + population pressure on land pastoralism versus Sedentary cultivation; urbanization → lake capture; forest fires 2) Outcome → downward spiral of worsening degradation, poverty; rural migration → impoverishing cultural identity+ abandoning traditional knowledge, intercultural conflict 3) Suggestions→ irrigation facilities + ground water management + recharge; afforestation → suiting local needs; sand fences, shelter belts, woodlots, windbreaks, land reclamation Nutrient management, crop diversification→ Millet + legume intensification 4) Command Area Development Programme, National Afforestation Programme, National Action Programme to Combat Desertification, Bonn Challenge → land restoration and reclamation.”
Q1,What are Black Soils?
1) Regur soil → ‘tropical chernozems’; Deccan traps → Formation → Zonal soil 2) Maharashtra, MP, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu → Regions of Deccan plateau 3) Texture → Calyey → deep + impermeable → high water retention capacity 4) Colour → Black → Iron + Aluminium compounds + humus; Fertile soil; Thick → lowlands; 5) Soils swell → Sticky → wet; Dry → wide cracks; self-aeration/ploughing→ absorb Nitrogen; 6) Chemical → Rich → lime, iron, magnesia, alumina; Poor → phosphorous, nitrogen 7) Crops → highly productive → cotton, pulses, millets, linseed, tobacco, sugarcane, citrus fruits”
Q1,How are Red Yellow and Laterite soils different?
Red yellow Laterite soil Formation → granites, gneisses, metamorphic rocks; well drained conditions, zonal soil Formation → high flat erosion surface → High, seasonal rainfall; leaching → Zonal soil Areas → piedmont zone → Western Ghats; Southern middle Gangetic plain; Areas → Higher Peninsular plateau; Karnataka, Kerala, TN, MP Colour → Red; Diffusion → Iron → crystalline + metamorphic rock; yellow → Hydrated Reddish brown → iron oxide; lime + silica leached; humus content removed→ drought Porous, friable, poor → Nitrogen, humus, airy + need irrigation; intense leaching Low in fertility; humus decomposed; Poor → organic matter; Rich → Iron oxide; potash”
Q2,What are the importance of Black, Red, Yellow and laterite soils ?
1) Black soil → cereal production + pasture + range + forage system → food security; high soil organic carbon (SOC) content → greenhouse gas + mitigate climate change; 2) Laterite soil → soil stabilization → construction material → low-cost road, buildings 3) Red soil → 13% global abundance; Largest in India; Millet production”
Q3,What are the different irrigation methods that the soil system require?
1) Well Water Irrigation system → deep + shallow → red soils → drained in wet season; 2) Inundation Irrigation system → Alluvial deposits → Canal irrigation; 3) Micro → Sprinkler, Drip Higher Cropping + irrigation intensity; Water use efficiency → energy efficiency; off grid farmer → diesel + solar pump; Fertiliser use efficiency; increasing crop productivity → quality + quantity; inter cropping + crop rotation + fertigation; doubling farmer’s income → overcome land salinization + degradation → Sustainability 4) Challenges – Variability in energy demand + low awareness + expensive set up cost 5) IoT based Smart Irrigation system → Precision agriculture → Hydroponic + Aquaponic”
Q1,How are soils Formed?
1) Pedogenic Processes → Addition + Losses + Translocation + Transformations 2) Acted by → climate + organisms; Passive factors → Parent material + Climate (role of precipitation + temperature) + Biota + Topography + Time”
Q2,What are the different characteristics of soils?
1) Colour → physical + chemical characteristics → Ex: Humus rich (dark); Red yellow (iron) 2) Texture → coarseness/fineness of mineral matter; 3 major → Clay, Silt, Sand 3) Texture affects → water content, water flow, retention of nutrients, aeration extent 4) Structure → arrangement→ Permeability (greatest in sandy soils, poor in clayey soils) + Porosity (Clay → Porous but not permeable; granite → non-porous but permeable) 5) Chemistry → soil acidity (humid), alkalinity (arid, semi-arid), neutrality”
Q3,What are the different classifications of soil found in India?
1) Ancient India → Urvara → fertile; Usara → sterile; 2) ICAR classification of soils → Inceptisols, Entisols, Vertisols, Aridisols, Ultisols, Etc. 3) On basis of dominant features → Zonal soil; Azonal soil; Intra Zonal soil 4) Colour/Composition → Alluvial, Black, Laterite, Red and Yellow, Saline, Peaty, Forest, Arid”
Q4,What are Alluvial soils?
1) Formation→ debris, sedimentation → silt of Tethys Sea → Azonal soil; 2) Areas → Northern plains + river valleys → narrow corridor → extend to Rajasthan, Gujarat; Peninsula → delta east coast + river valley; Upper + middle Ganga plain → Khadar + Bhangar 3) Texture → Sandy loam to clay → Sand content decrease west – east 4) Colour → light grey- ash grey; Depends on → Depth of deposition + texture + maturity 5) Transported soil → Lack humus + nitrogen [Except: Sunderban delta]; Rich → Potash+ lime 6) Soil profile → no stratification; certain areas → covered → unproductive wind-borne → Loess”
Q5,What are the importance of Alluvial soils?
1) New alluvium → rich organic matter; Periodic flooding → rejuvenation → soil fertility. Ex: Zuni people in southwestern US; 2) Requiring → least water → high porosity. India → 46% of total area of India 3) Major crops grown→ rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, maize, cotton, soybean, jute, etc. 4) Three dimensional riparian areas → Ecotone → Terai regions → ground water recharge; Biodiversity → flood plain → Wetland 5) Urban development → Low slopes → wide valleys → easy to excavate → population density 6) Fine particle → clay; Brick making + Pottery; Gravel nature → road aggregate + construction”
Q1,What is the Peninsula River System?
1) Older than Himalayan drainage → broad, largely-graded shallow valleys → Maturity 2) Concordant drainage pattern → non-perennial+rain fed; Fluvial land forms; 3) Almost reached-> base level river profile; Vertical down cutting→ negligible”
Q2,How are the peninsular river systems formed?
1) Origin → a) Subsidence of→ western flank of Peninsula; b) Upheaval of the Himalayas; c) Slight tilting of the Peninsular block →causing subsidence → rifts (trough, faults) 2) Earlier→ Sahyadri-Aravali axis → water divide; Cause east + west flowing river systems 3) Straight coastline+ absence of delta formations on the western coast”
Q3,What are the different components of peninsular river systems?
1) East flowing river → Bay of Bengal River system → Mahanadi (tributary→ Seonath, Jonk, Hasdo, Mand, Ib, Ong, Tel) + Godavari (tributary → Manjira, Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga, Pranahitha, Indravat) + Krishna (tributary → Kali Ganga, Koyna, Warna, Panchganga, Dudhganga, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Tungabhadra) + Cauvery (Tributary → Harangi, Hemavati, Bhavani, Kabini, Noyyal, Arkavathi, Shimsha) flow eastwards → drain Bay of Bengal → make deltas at mouth 2) West flowing river → Narmada, Tapi, Mahi → estuary formation → short course + drains fast into the sea + high inclination → hard rock → no distributary 3) Rivers draining into Ganga → Chambal, Ken, Betwa, Son, Damodar → bad land topography”
Q4,How are the Peninsular River system different from Gangetic River system?
1) Originate → Peninsular plateau, no glacial activity, variability in river regime → precipitation; waterfall at any course 2) Small basin + catchment area; flow in shallow valleys; little erosion activity; fixed course; absence of meanders, old plateau shields; not flood prone 3) Consequent drainage; superimposed; rejuvenated → trellis; rectangular; radial pattern 4) Western ghats → water divide; Western ghats → formation of springs; steep slope”
Q5,What are the importance of Peninsular River systems?
1) Increases water availability → rain shadow regions; groundwater recharge; Delta formation→ biodiversity → Krishna + Godavari delta; Ex: Kaleshwaram Lift multi-purpose irrigation project (World’s largest Irrigation + Drinking Water System + transportation); 2) Inland + national waterway → Ex: River Godavari + Krishna → Kakinada- Puducherry 3) River basin → agricultural bowl; Kaveri → TN, Lower Karnataka → rice bowl; 4) Hydroelectricity projects → Ex: Polavaram Hydro Electric Project; Nagarjuna Sagar 5) Cultural significance → Narmada valley project+Sardar sarovar project → River basin approach; Ecological cost/impact → Submerging Forest + agricultural land → Displacement Catchment area treatment → Narmada Bachao Andolan”
Q1,What is the Ganga River System?
1) Largest → 26.3% geographical area,10 states; Ambala water divide → Indus and Ganga 2) Rises → Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (Uttarakhand) → Bhagirathi; Devprayag → Bhagirathi + Alaknanda; Enter plains → Haridwar; Allahabad → Ganga + Yamuna; Rajmahal hills, Ganga → bifurcates at Farakka into Hugli in West Bengal, Padma → Bangladesh 3) Left bank tributaries → Ramganga; Gomati; Ghaghara; Gandak; Kosi; Mahananda 4) Right bank tributaries → Son, Yamuna (originates → Bandarpunch; longest tributary) 5) Chambal → Badland topography, Kosi → braided + shifting course → Sorrow of Bihar”
Q2,What are the features of Brahmaputra River System?
1) Origin → Chemayungdung glacier of Kailash range near Mansarovar Lake. 2) Tibet → Tsangpo; Hair pin ““U”” turn → Namcha barwa; Dihang/Siang gorge; Tista + Brahmaputra → Jamuna (Bangladesh); 3) Left bank → Dihing, Dhansari, Kalang; Right bank → Subansiri, Sankosh, Kameng, Manas 4) Forms canyon → Tibet; Majauli island → world’s largest riverine island + India’s first island district; Excessive meandering → Duars;”
Q3,How is the ecological flow of Himalayan Rivers being affected?
1) Changing river regime → drying of springs (90% water); receding glaciers; deforestation 2) Drilling, tunneling, blasting → run - river hydro project → sedimentation → bed-load change 3) Pressure on land-use; depleting groundwater reserves; growing consumption demands → migration + settlement patterns change; reduction of temporal spread of rainfall 4) Identifying recharge areas + developing local capacity + incentivizing rainwater harvesting 5) Check dams, percolation ponds, injecting water into aquifers”
Q4,What are the various steps that can be taken to clean Ganga?
1) Classifications of Mini + Micro Projects; Maintaining base flow/natural flow; nirmaldhara + aviraldhara; Preserving natural ecosystem → Gharial → chambal river 2) Policy of Zero discharge→ Reuse + Recycle→ grey water, natural manure; Non-Point sources → organic/natural farming; 3) Eco-hostile river-front development; minimum interference +minimum ecological flow; 4) Namami Gange → multi-sectoral + multi-dimensional +multi-stakeholder; 100% share - central sector scheme; Three level – (a) Entry level → river surface cleaning (b) Medium term → arresting the municipal and industrial pollution (c) Long term → determination of e-flow, increased water-use efficiency + improved efficiency of surface irrigation.”
Q1,What is the Himalayan drainage system?
1) River originating → Himalayan + trans-Himalayan range; 2) Three major river system→ Ganga; Brahmaputra; Indus;”
Q2,What are the features of Himalayan river system?
1) Melting snow + Precipitation → Perennial; 2) Upper reach → Youthful stage → Gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls etc. 3) Middle part → Plains→deposition features → Meandering → flat valleys, ox-bow lakes, flood plains, braided channels, deltas”
Q3,How are the Himalayan River system formed?
1) Shiwalik→ entire longitudinal extent→ Assam to Punjab (lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits) → dismembered into three drainage 2) Dismemberment → Pleistocene upheaval+ Western Himalaya+ uplift of Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge) → act as water divide → Indus/Ganga River system 3) Down thrusting → Malda gap→ Rajmahal Hill; Meghalya Plateau → Bay of Bengal drainage”
Q4,What is Indus River water system?
1) River basin → One third India (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab) 2) Origin - Glacier → near Bokhar Chu -> Kailash Mountain range (Tibet called Singi Khamban) 3) Course- Enters India- Damchok → Flows → Leh → Deep gorge → Enters Pakistan (Chillar, Dardistan) → deep gorge → hair pin bend → Discharge → Arabian sea 4) Major Right-bank tributaries → Shyok, Kabul, Gilgit, Khurram, Kunar, Hunza, Tochi, Nubra 5) Left-bank tributaries → Zaskar; ‘Panjnad’ → joins at Mithankot → five rivers → Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum”
Q5,What are the features of the Panjnad system?
1) Jhelum → rise → Verinag (Pir Panjal) → Navigable in some part; Tulbul Navigation Project 2) Chenab → Chandra + Bhaga → Originate → Bara Lacha pass (Lahaul) → largest tributary → Indus; Flows between → Pir Panjal – Greater Himalaya; Important project → Baglihar 3) Ravi → Rises Rohtang pass→ flows→ Chamba valley→ drains Pir Panjal- Dhauladhar; 4) Beas → originate- Beas kund; Meets Sutlej → Harike; Only river of Panjnad that lies entirely in India; 5) Satluj → Originate→ Rakas Lake (near Mansarovar) → Passes through Shipki La → Antecedent River → Canal system of Bhakra Nangal; Sutlej-Yamuna Link (SYL) canal 6) SYL canal issue→ b/w Punjab & Haryana; 1960 – Indus water treaty → ‘free and unrestricted use’; 1966 → Creation of Haryana → Green revolution; Water stress grew; Punjab refusal → Riparian principle; 2020 → Punjab → Tribunal → time bound assessment”
Question,Answer
- What are the economic significance of Western ghats?
1) Subsistence → World heritage site; Particularly Vulnerable Tribal groups- Toda, Irula etc. → ethos of livelihood; Non - timber forest produce, medicinal plants 2) Rich in -> iron, manganese, bauxite ores; 3) Pepper, cardamom, coffee, rubber, tea → plantation crops 4) Tourism (Ooty, Waynad) + Pilgrimage centers (Sabarimalai, Mahabaleshwar)”
- What are the effects of Climatic change on Western Ghats?
1) Impact on precipitation → erratic and localized rainfall → North – South variability in rains; Drought in areas of Krishna, Kaveri basins; flooding, landslides 2) Impact on agriculture → Rain fed agriculture → reduced yield; plantation crop → hastened soil drying, soil cover loss; reduction in local variety of crop 3) Impact on forest → Net Primary productivity reduced 4) Impact on Biodiversity → Species loss → constricted gene pool → climate stress → fragmentation of habitat (Ex- endemic brown mongoose)”
- How can Western ghats be saved from ongoing destructive development?
1) Linear infrastructure projects → unscientific construction + urbanisation 2) Unsustainable mining activities → Iron ore extraction (Goa) → Sand Mining (Kerala) 3) Indiscriminate promotion of tourism → Solid waste generated → recycling→ hard metals 4) Increasing Landslides; destruction of riparian forest + tree cover; river regime affected 5) Construction of dam → Proper EIA → Natural and free flowing river maintained; 6) Projects avoid → Deforestation; Prior informed consent → locals; social audit incorporate 7) Community + traditional water harvesting; watershed measures; Rice intensification 8) Increasing Human wildlife conflict → Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary → 11% of grain loss”
- What are the recommendations made by different committees?
1) Gadgil Committee report (WGEEP) → entire hill range → Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) and Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ); Proposes → Bottom (Gram Sabha led) to Top approach; Establishing a Western Ghats Ecology Authority; 2) Kasturirangan committee Report → complete ban → mining + quarrying + sand mining in ESA; 37% area as ESA; Distinguished between ‘cultural & natural landscape (41% area)’; monitoring agency set up; 3) MoEFCC + NGT→ “No go Zone” → phasing out mines within 5 years 4) Need to understand → distributional patterns+ habitat requirements+ financial incentives + sustainable farming + incentive schemes + payments for ecosystem services (REDD+)”
- How are the Western Ghats formed?
1) Western edge → Deccan table land; Steep sided (escarpment) + terraced + flat topped hills 2) Horizontally bedded lava → stepped/ landing stair feature; Abrupt rise → Coastal plain 3) Slope gently on Eastern side; Southern side → separated by Rift valley 4) Older than Himalaya and Eastern ghats → Spread over six states; Continuous Range → Passes → Thal, Bhor, Pal, Senkota; 3 coasts → Konkan + Kanara + Malabar”
- What are the effects of Western ghats on climatology of India?
1) Altitudinal gradation → Montane forest ecosystem + Warm tropical humid climate 2) Role in Monsoon → Key barrier → South western Monsoon; Orographic rainfall → create rain shadow regions → Vidarbha, 3) Hydrological role → Origination → peninsular rivers [Krishna, Kaveri, Godavari, etc] → Water tower and watershed of Peninsula; 4) Evolutionary Ecotone → speciation related to Gondwana land→ Out of “Asia and Africa””
- What are the biodiversity significance of Western ghats?
1) Montane forest ecosystems, Moist deciduous, Tropical evergreen, scrub forest, High rainfall savannas; Myristica swamps – unique vegetation types 2) High degree of endemism + species richness; one of the 8 Hottest Hotspots; 6% land – 30% fauna; Varation in endemism → latitudinal length of dry season gradient + temperature-elevation gradient; endemism higher → short dry season + higher altitudes 3) Endemic Fauna species → Lion-Tailed Macaque; Nilgiri Tahr; Malabar Civet; 4) Shola forest- isolated compact evergreen patches → folds of rolling downs → moisture content is high → stunted trees”
- What are the biological hot spots of Western Ghats?
1) Nilgiris - First biosphere reserve → Confluence of Biotic zones (Afro-tropical and Indo-Malayan); Tributaries of Kaveri → Bhavani, Moyar, Kabini; Confluence of → Mudumalai WS + Wayanad WS, Bandipur NP + Nagarhole NP + Mukurthi NP + Silent Valley 2) Silent valley → Tropical rain forest → high and continuous ridges + steep escarpment → shielded from extreme climate → ecological island → special micro climate; River Kunthipuzha flows; Home of Lion tail Macaque(endangered); Silent Valley Movement → against hydro electric project in 1973 3) Part of project Elephant + project tiger”
- What are the economic significance of Himalayas?
1) Agriculture → Horticulture crops [apple, citrus, peach, plum]; Shivalik range-> Eastern Himalayas suited for Tea; Kashmir Himalaya- Saffron cultivation; Pine tree- resins, pulp 2) Mineral resources → coal+oil reserve; Metallic ores [Copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, antimony, tungsten]+precious stone; 3) Energy → small and micro hydro electric energy; Regional Integrated Energy Plans – decentralize renewable→ spatiotemporal variability→ local demands 4) Tourism→ pilgrimage+leisure+adventure tourism→ multiplier-effect”
- How can the effects of Climatic change on Himalayas be reduced?
1) Influence precipitation, rainfall → runoff pattern→ downstream water availability 2) Black carbon→ accentuating glacial melting; Measures→ fuel-efficiency standards, efficiency of brick kilns, Cleaner cook stoves, fossil fuel to renewable energy sources 3) Increased frequency + magnitude → extreme weather events- high intense rainfall, flash floods, landslides and debris flows, Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) 4) Shrinking Permafrost→ altered hydrological cycle, vegetation composition, carbon dioxide and methane fluxes→ increased seasonal thawing→ instability+erosion→ activation of soil carbon pool→expansion of non-permafrost→ desertification increase 5) Fragmentation of habitat+ecosystem→ shifts in the latitude of forest boundaries + upward movement of tree line → change in species and vegetation composition”
- What steps need to be taken to resolve issues arising out of tourism industry?
1) Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) ~ 71.5 billion$ to GDP; Some states ~ 10%GDP; Investment is less; Unsustainable models of tourism; informal sector; loss of forest 2) Non-climatic issues → human wildlife conflicts, water insecurity, land degradation→ socio-demographic change (out-migration-Ghost Villages of Uttarakhand), solid waste, air pollution; (b) Synergy deficits - investments + interventions synchronised 3) Balanced economy+long term preservation+ sensitive to needs of host population 4) community-based, tourism management committees (b) sector centric forest policy; (c) waste management, marketing, and branding and tourism enterprise development (governance) (d) overcoming fragility, marginality, and inaccessibility by upstream-downstream linkages of cultures and ecosystem services”
- What is the cultural significance of Himalaya?
1) Livelihood of tribal→ fuel wood + Minor forest produce → new farming practice and water demand management; high-altitude wetlands, sacred grooves 2) Composite of several cultural cosmoses→ High Altitude → nomadic and dispersed; Mid Altitude-sedentary zones, village settlements; Low altitude and foothills- ‘slash and burn’ cultivation+ terrace farming; 3) Monastery [Tabo,Hemis]+spiritual significance; Rich weaving + tapestry work[Pashmina]”
- How did Himalayas originate?
1) Plate tectonic theory → Indian+ Eurasian plate → great geosynclines → Tethys sea; Some Himalayan river older than Himalaya. 2) Tethys sea→ Marine limestone→ summit of peaks→ Tibetan plateau→ upthrusting 3) line of collision → Tibetan Plateau+ Indian Plate → Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone → compression tectonic fault; Further south- Murree Foredeep, Shiwalik foredeep 4) Relief structure → Tibetan plateau|Indus –Tsangpo Suture Zone→ Tethyan/Trans Himalayas→ Great Himalaya|MCT| Lesser Himalaya→ MBF| Shivalik → HFF| Plains”
- What are the different Himalayan ranges?
1) Parallel/converging ranges→ dissected topography→southern slope→ steep gradient 2) Trans/Tibetan Himalaya → Zaskar, Ladakh, Kailas, Karakoram → East-west direction →Indus→ Northern slopes Kailas range; Karakoram→greatest glaciers outside pole 3) Great/Himadri Himalaya→ (a) central crystallines (granites+ gneisses), (b) metamorphosed sediments symmetrical+ steep slope, (c) convex to south → ends at syntaxial bends (Nanga Parbat in north-west + Namcha Barwa in north-east) 4) Middle/Lesser Himalaya→ (a) steep, bare southern slopes [prevents soil formation], (b) gentle, forest covered northern slopes; (c) Pir Panjal range→ Jhelum to Beas → Continuous hence need passes(Banihal); (d) Kashmir valley→ synclinal basin + alluvial, lacustrine [lake deposits], fluvial [river action], glacial deposits; Jhelum river→ deep gorge in Pir Panjal; Kangra→ strike valley; Kulu→ transverse valley. 5) Shivalik range → Potwar plateau-Brahmaputra valley; Tista river; Valley- syncline; hills → anticline; Southern slope→ devoid of forest, dissected streams→ Chos; Duns 6) Purvanchal/ Eastern hills→ Dihang gorge → Himalayas southern bend→ convex to west → sandstone; Jaintia, Khasi and Garo → eastward→ Indian peninsular block”
- What are the characteristics of Longitudinal vision Himalayas?
1) Kashmir Himalaya→ Karewa formation→ Lake deposits→ Clay+silt+sand→ glaciation→ cultivation of Zafran; (b)Nepal Himalaya → Tallest section; (c) Sikkim Himalaya- Jalep La Pass- Tri junction of India-China-Bhutan;(d) Assam Himalaya→ formation of Duar; Diphu Pass – Tri junction of India-China-Myanmar; 2) Eastern Himalayas snowline at higher altitude; Western Himalayas→ lower, gradual slope→ peaks far away from plains→ climatic conditions moderated on plains”
- What is a land form and what are its various types?
1) Natural+artificial feature ->planetary body; Formed by internal process (uplift +sinking); External process (wearing down+rebuilding) → Erosion+Deposition→ water, ice, wind 2) Five major land form → Fluvial(water)+ Aeolian(wind)+ Glacial+ Wave+ Karst 3) Folding, Faulting, and Vulcanism → secondary land forms → due to endogenic forces”
- What are fold mountains?
1) sedimentary rock strata →geosynclines →compression forces; Folding in metamorphic rock rare → hard +brittle → break → reverse fault → mark plate boundaries 2) Fold→ undulating structure→ multiple layers→ upward convex(anticline) → downward convex(syncline)”
- What are the types of fold mountains?
1) Origination → Very old, old fold, alpine young fold (rugged, lofty, conical) 2) Nature of fold→ Simple (syncline+ anticline); Complex (detached folds - ‘nappe’)”
- What are the characteristics of fold mountains?
1) Rock type→ sedimentary rocks→ marine origin→ deposition+ consolidation; shallow water deposits; Recurrent seismicity; 2) May or may not have volcanism → volcanic rocks of ancient times; 3) Youngest mountains→ lofty→ width small→ granite intrusion; concave+convex slope”
- Why the fold mountain systems located along the margins of continents?
1) Folding + uprising sediment; ocean-continent collision; continent-continent collision; 2) Over thrust folds → Further folding → fracture → Nappe; Upper layer slides over lower layer→ energy released → Earth quakes; Convergence of denser plates→ release magma from mantle region → high pressure→ continental plane;”
- What are the effects of fold mountains on human life?
1) Impact climate→ Vegetation →Orographic rainfall → unique ecosystem →flora+fauna; 2) significant economic importance → Tourist spots+ adventure sport; Hydro Electric Power→ steep slope → Hinterland connectivity; de-carbonise; 3) Prone to landslides, flash floods→ loose soil+ gravitational pull+ due to steep slope”
- What is plate tectonic theory?
1) Lithosphere broken → floats on asthenosphere → horizontal movement→ rigid units 2) Oceanic crust→ Simatic(thinner); Continental crust→ Sialic(thicker) 3) Movement of plates → convection currents in mantle → thermal gradient”
- What are evidences that support plate tectonic theory?
1) Paleomagnetism → Polar wandering→ orientation of iron grains → sea floor spreading 2) older rocks → continents; younger rocks→ ocean floor 3) Gravitation anomalies→ value of gravitational constant less→ loss of material 4) Earthquake and vulcanism → along plate boundaries; creation of convection cell”
- What are the land forms formed due to plate tectonic theory?
1) Convergent plate boundaries –>crumpling+folding+destruction→ orogenic collision→fold mountains → Ex:- Himalayan Boundary Fault; Zone of subduction→ trenches; volcanic arc systems + oceanic plate boundaries → island arcs; 2) Divergent plate boundaries→ move away→ Mid-ocean ridges→ basaltic magma→ sea floor spreading→ East African rift valley→ shallow focus earthquake+ crust formation 3) Transform plate boundaries→ no creation/destruction→ deformation→ creates faults perpendicular to mid oceanic ridges→San Andreas Fault”
- What has been the movement of Indian tectonic plate?
1) Present form→ tertiary geological age→ Peninsular+Australian continental portion→ boundary between India and the Antarctic plate → oceanic ridge 2) Plate tectonic→ height of Himalayas increasing; Northward movement of plate→ colliding with Asiatic plate → Makes tectonic active zone + seismic zone IV 3) The northward movement → formation of Deccan trap (shield volcano)”
- Why the frequency of Earthquakes over Delhi has increased?
1) Proximity to main boundary thrust fault; Release of stress by frequent collision of Indian plate and Eurasian plate; Presence of loose alluvial soil of plains amplifies the quake 2) Presence of other weak zones and faults → Delhi-Haridwar ridge, Dehradun subsurface fault, Moradabad fault, etc.”
- What are Tropical cyclones?
1) Violent storms → areas of low pressure (decides wind intensity) over ocean → violent winds(squalls)+ torrential rainfall + storm surge 2) Irregular wind movement+ closed air circulation → rapid upward movement of hot air”
- What are factors responsible for formation of tropical cyclones?
1) Large sea surface+ sea surface temperature > 27C; latent heat of condensation 2) Coriolis force →create cyclonic vortex + direction; Weak low-pressure area+depression 3) Upper divergence above sea level system; Small local variations in temperature + wind speed → low-pressure centers of small size 4) rising of humid air => adiabatic lapse rate => fall in temp => condensation of moisture => latent heat released => hotter and lighter air uplifted => more air fills gap => new moisture available for condensation 5) convergence of air masses → spiraling circular wind (eye) & multiple convective cells”
- What are the impacts of tropical cyclones on India?
1) 10% of world’s tropical cyclone exposed to India; primary peak in November. 2) Storm surge inundates low lying areas + causes heavy floods+ coastal erosion+ destroys vegetation + reduces soil fertility → salinity increases 3) Gulab, Yaas and Tauktae growing intensity of wind + unconventional weather pattern → preparedness time is low → Dense population + poor capacity→ pandemic adds to problem → Public health + economic and climatic security + mangrove ecosystem 4) Institutional structures +insurance systems for financial protection from material loss”
- Why more tropical cyclones occur on eastern coast?
1) Higher vaporization from sea + Fresh water inflow + trough-like shape coastline + Pacific cyclones (break away typhoons) + Land on three sides → Greater heat from landmass 2) Flatter plain, land, emergent eastern coast – prevent deflection of winds”
- Why the frequency of cyclones in Arabian sea is increasing?
1) Rising sea surface temperature; Altering the cycles of El Nino (EN) and El Nino Modoki (ENM) → creating larger area for wind convergence → intensification of cyclonic depression in Arabian sea 2) Intensification of easterly winds → Ex :- Ockhi generated in BoB-> towards Arabian sea”
- What are Jet streams?
1) Narrow concentrated bands + high velocity + geostrophic wind in upper troposphere 2) They are circumpolar & follow the boundaries between hot and cold air mass.”
- What are the influencing factors & characteristics for the Jet Stream Flow?
1) High velocity → thermal contrast → temperature gradient 2) Meandering → encircle the globe, follow a curved path →3 dimensional flow + develop crests + trough → covering a wide area → travel from west to east → “Rivers of the air” → pressure gradient force at the core 3) Seasonal variations + shift with the movement of the sun + Forms “Eddies” 4) Landmass → friction + temperature differences (decides intensity + height); 5) Coriolis force → centrifugal effects; Temperature of stratosphere → strength + position of jet stream; Cooler stratosphere → Greater strength of jet stream”
- What is the role of Jet stream in macro-climatic changes and associated weather phenomena?
1) Role in Polar vortex → Meandering becomes extreme → temperature gradient. Global warming → warming of pole → Permanent jet streams or polar front jets → got shifted southward by depleting ozone layer 2) Maintains latitudinal heat balance→ air mass movement + exchange 3) Contain wind shear, high wind velocity→ major threat to airlines. Help airlines too. East bound flight time < Westbound flights.”
- How does the Jet stream affect the weather system in India?
1) Role in Western disturbances (from Mediterranean) → mid-latitude region → Westerly jet stream → low pressure system → snowfall in winter in NW parts → important for Rabi crops (Wheat); 5-10% of India’s annual rainfall → changing nature resulted into disasters → Cloudbursts, landslides, flooding 2) Role in monsoon → Tropical Easterly Jet/ African Easterly Jet → reversal of upper air circulation pattern; Somali Jet → southwesterly → intensity of monsoon → strengthens Mascarene high; Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ) → blocks solar monsoon cell + inhibits solar monsoon → creates ridge (anticyclonic) and trough (cyclonic air movement); Burst of monsoon → STJ withdraws from sub continent → Northward movement; High Pressure due to STJ + High Pressure over Tibet = strong divergence = no rainfall in winter”
- What is air mass?
1) Homogeneous air block → temperature + humidity + moisture. 2) Extend from surface to lower stratosphere → part of global planetary wind system”
- What are the conditions for their formation?
1) source regions → homogeneous air masses are created 2) Main source regions → high pressure belts in sub tropics, poles, low-latitude deserts like the Sahara, continental interiors of North America and Eurasia. 3) Source region properties → extensive, gentle, divergent air circulation, little pressure gradient 4) Two major types -> Tropical air mass(warm) & Polar air mass (cold); Heat exchange process occur slowly between surface and air mass.”
- What are the characteristics of Air Mass?
1) Maritime air masses → high humidity → produce large amount of precipitation; continental air mass is dry → produce less precipitation. 2) Air mass spreads over large areas → little variation in temperature + stability + moisture 3) Retain its original identity & not torn apart by differences in airflow.”
- What is the role of air mass in macro - climatic changes?
1) Vertical distribution of temperature, moisture content -> weather system to change, stall + transfer of latent heat → removing latitudinal heat balance. 2) Boundary zone of convergence separating the two air masses → fronts. Atmospheric disturbances originate at these fronts → Frontogenesis → Temperate cyclones are formed (*Will be dealt in a separate concept class). 3) Oceanic air mass → atmospheric moisture → oceans to continents + cause precipitation over landmass → Frontal precipitation. 4) Dry air mass → arid condition → hasten the process of desertification. Ex- Sahel region 5) Continental Arctic air mass → cause of extreme cold conditions → polar vortex. 6) Air mass transport from north-west to Delhi → conspicuous amount of highly volatile + semi-volatile aerosols + Columns of NO2, Ozone → photo chemical smog. 7) stagnation of wind → stable air mass → dust + PM2.5 + PM10 particles = cloud condensation nuclei → increases haze and smog.”
Question,Answer
- What is North East monsoon?
1) Withdrawal of South-West monsoon and onset of North East monsoon is a gradual phenomena (3 months), hence also called Retreating monsoon.”
- Why the monsoon retreats?
1) Low-pressure area over the north-western parts of India weakens → gradual transition of ITCZ towards the South 2) High pressure starts to build up over the Tibetan plateau and central Asia. 3) Sun shifts towards the equator(equinox). 4) Eastern tropical jet stream and Somali Jet stream begin to die → onset of Westerly jet stream”
- What are the temperature conditions during retreating monsoon?
1) Rise in temperature with high humidity → ““October Heat”” or ““Kwar ki Umas”” 2) The rainfall is scanty due to anti cyclonic circulations on land. 3) Exceptions:- rainiest months of the year in coastal areas of Tamil Nadu → due to large indentation made by the Bay of Bengal. 4) Possibility of tropical cyclones and passage of cyclonic depressions.”
- What is the variability of rainfall in India and issues related to it?
1) Average rainfall in India – 125cm; Areas of High Rainfall- west coast, Western Ghats, Khasi hills; Areas of Medium Rainfall - areas of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, north-eastern Peninsula, northern Ganga plain, Cachar Valley; Areas of Low Rainfall – N-W part of India and parts of Deccan Plateau. Areas of Inadequate Rainfall – Rain shadow regions of Western ghats and cold, hot deserts of India. 2) More than 50% farmland rain-fed, 70% of annual rainfall in monsoon season. Low summer monsoon affects planting of Kharif crop, weak retreating monsoon → Rabi 3) Low rainfall → drought, affects rural consumption, automobile, fast moving consumer goods, increases the imports of essential food staples; government measures like farm loan waivers due to political populism; increases fiscal deficit. 4) The Monsoon rains helps in increasing output of hydro-electric power projects in perennial river systems. The monsoon winds → wind energy in Kucch and TN coast. 5) The debit side, Indian economy suffers heavy losses due to floods and droughts. Farmer suicides and disaster related expenditures.”
- What is monsoon?
1) Monsoons are seasonal winds. Rhythmic + Periodic and secondary wind movement 2) They flow from sea to land during the summer and from land to sea during winter. 3) These wind movements are type of large convection cells.”
- What are it’s types ?
1) South West monsoon 2) The North – East monsoon”
- What are the various factors responsible for formation of South West monsoon?
1) Differential heating effect between the ocean and land in South Asia. 2) Coriolis force causes the wind movement to turn right into the landmass. 3) Role of moisture and condensation which release latent heat and augments the differential heating produced by the land-sea contrast. 4) The Tibetan plateau exerts its influence both as a mechanical barrier in the atmospheric flow as well as a high level heat source. 5) Permanent high pressure cell in the South Indian Ocean (east to north-east of Madagascar in summer).”
- What are the factors that influence the onset of south-west monsoons?
1) The role of Jet streams Sub tropical/ Tropical Westerly Jet stream, Tropical/ Equatorial Easterly Jet stream. 2) Annual migration of thermally induced planetary winds and pressure belts or shifting of ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone).”
- What are the factors that influence the intensity of south-west monsoons?
1) Mascarene High(high pressure area at sea south of equator) and the Somali Jetstream. 2) Indian Ocean branch of Walker Cell. 3) Variation in the axis of the monsoon trough. Break in monsoon, the trough shifts to the base of Himalayas. 4) Teleconnections and see-saw pattern of meteorological change of ENSO – El–Nino and Southern Oscillation Index.”
