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Meteorology Flashcards

1
Q

Where is Water Vapour the Greatest?

A

In the lower parts of the atmosphere due to gravity

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2
Q

The Troposphere

A

30,000ft above the poles

60,000ft above the equator as it is hotter

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3
Q

The Tropopause

A

Top section of the troposphere

Convection weakens

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4
Q

Isothermal Layer

A

Temperature stays the same

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5
Q

Stratosphere

A

An isothermal layer at which the temp stays constant at -56.5 degrees celcius according to ISA conditions

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6
Q

Atmospheric Pressure

A

A force that exerts in all directions

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7
Q

Pressure Systems

A

Measured in hPa above MSL

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8
Q

Isobars

A

Lines of equal pressure

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9
Q

Horizontal Pressure Gradient

A

Air will flow from a high to a low
At night sea= warmer, day land = warmer
Earth moves from west to east
High pressure systems move anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere

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10
Q

Atmospheric Density

A

ISA: 1.225kg/m^3

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11
Q

Heating processes in the Atmosphere

A

Solar radiation/insolation
Conduction and Convection
Advection

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12
Q

Solar Radiation/Insolation

A

Short wave
Electro-magnetic radiation
Long wave terrestrial radiation from the heated Earth
Air is warmest near to the Earth

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13
Q

Conduction and Convection

A

Conduction: by touch
Convection: rising air

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14
Q

Advection

A

Sea breeze

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15
Q

Factos Affecting Atmospheric Temperature

A 
The Seasons
Specific Heat Capacity
The Colour and Reflectivity
Diurnal Temperature Variations
Effect of Cloud
Effect of Wind
Effect of Costal Proximity
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16
Q

Specific Heat Capacity

A

More energy required to heat water than air, however water has a higher heat retention

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17
Q

The Colour and Reflectivity

A 
Snow = 90%
Forrest = 5-10%
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18
Q

Diurnal Temperature Variations

A

Hottest time of day = 3pm
Coldest time of day = just after sunrise
Large amplitude at in-land stations

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19
Q

Effect of Cloud

A

Overcast days are cooler
Overcast nights are warmer (blanket effect)
Cloudless night are cooler as nothing to stop terrestrial radiation

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20
Q

Effect of Wind

A

Mixing of different air masses moderates the overall temp

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21
Q

Effect of Costal Proximity

A

Cool sea breeze cools a hot summers day and vice versa at night

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22
Q

Large Scale Atmospheric Circulation

A

Subsidence causes areas of high pressure

Convection causes areas of low pressure

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23
Q

Associated Weather Systems with Atmospheric Circulation

A

Equatorial/monsoonal trough
Sub-tropical ridge
Sub-polar low/polar front

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24
Q

Equatorial/Monsoonal Trough

A

Complex low pressure systems

Singapore (bad weather)

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25
Q

Sub-Tropical Ridge

A

High pressure systems

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26
Q

Sub-Polar Low/Polar Front

A

Complex, intense low pressure systems

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27
Q

Water in the Atmosphere

A

Solid to vapour: sublimation

Vapour to solid: deposition

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28
Q

Latent Heat and Temperature

A

Add heat: solid to vapour

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29
Q

Humidity

A

How much water is in the air

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30
Q

Relative Humidity (RH)

A

How much water is in a parcel of air
Ability of the air to hold moisture
Saturation: cloud formation/visible moisture/100% RH: dew point
RH depends on air temperature

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31
Q

Relative Humidity and Temperature

A

Warm air holds more water vapour than cold air
Relative humidity increases when air temp decreases to reach dew point = 100% RH
RH = actual water vapour/max water vapour for temp x 100%

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32
Q

Atmospheric Stability (RH)

A

Depends greatly on the % RH and temp vs dew point relationship

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33
Q

Temperature Inversions

A

Temp increases as height increases

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34
Q

Types of Temperature Inversions

A

Radiation
Subsidence
Frontal

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35
Q

Radiation Inversion

A

Cloudless night and light winds
Ground surface cools rapidly overnight
Temp increases with height in low level (generally)

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36
Q

Subsidence Inversion

A

Requires a high pressure system
Cold air subsides and warms rapidly adiabatically (adiabatic process)
Warm air above, cold air near surface (4,000 - 8,000ft AGL)

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37
Q

Frontal Inversion

A

Cold dense air forces the warm air upwards

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38
Q

Effects of Temperature Inversions

A

Turbulence
Pollution/dust/salt may be trapped under the inversion layer and decrease visibility
Decreased aircraft performance after take-off as flying into warmer air section
Inversion layers generally indicate a stable atmosphere as they restrict air parcels from rising and above the layer becomes smooth

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39
Q

Classifications of Turbulence

A

Light: small effect on attitude and altitude
Moderate: significant effect and variation in IAS
Severe: large abrupt changes with short periods of uncontrollability
Extreme: practically impossible to control, possible structural damage

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40
Q

Types of Turbulence

A

Thermal
Mechanical/Frictional
Wake

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41
Q

Thermal Turbulence

A

Due to solar radiation, frontal activity and inversions
Temp differences in the air masses cause thermals, thunderstorm activity, frontal lines and horizontal wind shear
May display as a large temp vs. dew point split

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42
Q

Mechanical/Frictional Turbulence

A

Up to 2000-3000ft AGL
Friction over the ground surface due to strong winds
Depends on the type of obstruction and windspeed

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43
Q

Pilot Actions

A

Accurate airspeed control
Increase approach speed
Consider ‘reduced flap’ landing
Use best turbulence penetration speed (Vb)
Find the shortest way out
Visualise airflow around obstructions to minimise surprise
Beware of vortices downwind of obstructions

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44
Q

Wake Turbulence

A

Take-off before their take-off point and touch down after their touch-down point and make a steeper climb and descent
Wind and turbulent air will disrupt wingtip vortices
Generally vortex sinks at +/- 500ft/min

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45
Q

Windshear

A

Sudden change in wind speed and/or direction over a short distance resulting in a speed variation bigger than 10kts

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46
Q

Low Level Windshear

A

Below 1600ft AGL

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47
Q

Windshear on Approach

A

Overshoot: sudden increase in headwind
Undershoot: sudden decrease in headwind

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48
Q

Pilot Actions in Windshear

A

Accurate speed control
Control/capture IAS while maintaining the approach path
Increase approach speed

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49
Q

The Adiabatic Process

A

Rising air cools due to expansion

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50
Q

Adiabatic Lapse Rates

A

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) = 3 degrees celcius/1000ft, when it reaches its dew point it will use the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate = 1.5 degrees celcius/1000ft (never changes)

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51
Q

Cloud Base

A

Where a parcel of air reaches dew point or condensation

The bottom of any amount of cloud

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52
Q

Atmospheric Stability

A

Ability of the air to resist any upsetting tendency
Depends on the ELR: ELR < 1.5 degrees celcius/1000ft = stable
: ELR > 3 degrees celcius/1000ft = unstable

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53
Q

Cloud Classifications

A 
High Level
Mid Level
Low level
Stratus
Nimbostratus
Cumulonimbus
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54
Q

High Level Cloud

A 
Cirrus (Ci)
Base above 18,000ft
No precipitation as forms ice crystals
Cirrocumulus (Cc)
Cirrostratus (Cs) - can create halo
Reduces surface temp as prevents sun rays from increasing temp significantly
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55
Q

Middle Level Cloud

A

Alto
Base 8,000 - 18,000ft
Altocumulus (Ac)
Altostratus (As)

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56
Q

Low Level Cloud

A 
Base below 8,000ft
Cumulus (Cu)
Stratus (St)
Stratocumulus (Sc)
Nimbostratus (Ns)
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57
Q

Stratus Cloud

A

Cloud ceiling very low
Cloud base often ragged/diffuse
Poor visibility (VFR flying difficult)

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58
Q

Nimbostratus

A

Expect heavy continuous rain

Risk of icing, moderate rime ice

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59
Q

Cumulonimbus

A

CB

Great vertical development

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60
Q

Reporting Cloud Cover

A 
Few = 1-2 oktas
SCT = 3-4 oktas
BKN = 5-7 oktas
OVC = 8 oktas
NSC = no significant cloud
NSW = no significant weather
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61
Q

Cloud ceiling

A

The height AGL of cloud described BKN or OVC

62
Q

Precipitation

A

Drizzle, rain, showers, hail, snow, virga

63
Q

Intensity of Precipitation

A

Light (-)
Moderate
Heavy (+)

64
Q

Continuity of Precipitation

A

Showers: short duration and differing intensity, often associated with convective cloud (Cu + CB)
Intermittent: with short breaks
Continuous: layer type cloud, longer than an hour without breaks

65
Q

Virga

A

Falling moisture that evaporates before reaching the ground

Strong downdraught underneath

66
Q

Pressure Gradient

A

Is the initiating force

Initiates movement of air from a high to a low

67
Q

Wind

A

The horizontal movement of air

68
Q

Isobar Spacing

A

Indicates wind strength, blows at right angles to the isobars
Close = strong wind
Far apart = less wind

69
Q

Coriolis Force

A 
Deviating force
Air appears to be turning to the left in the southern hemisphere
Less wind = less coriolis force
At the equator: coriolis = 0
At the poles: coriolis = maximum
70
Q

Gradient Wind/Actual Wind

A

PGF + coriolis effect = gradient wind

Net result or actual wind = winds that flow approx parallel to the isobars

71
Q

Anti-Cyclones/High

A

Anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere

Airflow flowing out of a high pressure system

72
Q

Ridge

A

Extension of a high pressure system

73
Q

Weather in a High Pressure System

A

Subsiding air is stable and clouds tend to disperse
Subsidence inversion
The clear nights may result in radiation fog or radiation inversion as it is clear and dry
On the coast with higher humidity sheet-like clouds with rain may be present

74
Q

Depression/Low

A

Clockwise in southern hemisphere

Air flowing into a low pressure system

75
Q

Trough

A

Isobars extending out of a low pressure system, forming a valley

76
Q

Weather Associated With a Low

A

Rising air in a low will cool adiabatically
Cloud tends to form (Large Cu, CB or Ns) with heavy rain and showers
Good visibility

77
Q

Col Area

A

Area of almost constant pressure between two highs and two lows
Wind light and variable, potential fog
Isobars bending away from the centre
High temps may lead to thunderstorms

78
Q

Backing

A

Anticlockwise
Decreasing in number
More coriolis effect

79
Q

Veering

A 
Clockwise
Increasing in number
Going to the right
Slower wind
More common over land due to more friction
80
Q

Surface Friction

A

Uneven and different types of terrain
Up to 3,000ft AGL
Speed increases with height
Wind direction backs more with height due to coriolis force

81
Q

Difference Between Surface Wind and Gradient Wind

A

Over land veers approx 30 degrees (surface wind 1/3 of the original speed)
Over water veers approx 10 degrees (surface wind 2/3 of the gradient speed)

82
Q

Diurnal Variation in Wind Direction and Speed

A

Strongest during the day and veers less
Max approx 3pm (instability of air with convection currents)
Weakest around dawn (air is cool and friction is max)
Day to night: weaker and therefore veers

83
Q

Squall (SQ)

A

Ahead of convective clouds and CB’s

Outflow of cold air, down-draughts, gust fronts

84
Q

Line Squalls (LSQ)

A

A band of intense thunderstorms

85
Q

Gust (G)

A

A sudden increase in wind speed of more than 10kts and lasting for only a few seconds

86
Q

Local Winds on the Coast

A 
Sea breeze (daytime)
Up to approx +/- 1000ft and strongest at mid-afternoon
Land breeze (night)
87
Q

Thermals

A

Updraughts (reduce power)
Downdraughts (increase power)
Maintain best rate of climb airspeed after take-off
Temp (Tx) vs dew point (Td) split could indicate possible thermals
Areas of known thermal activity = glider activity

88
Q

Dust Devils

A

Short lived and localised, a few metres in diameter
Air and surface is dry
Large temp and dew point split

89
Q

Dust Storm

A

Mod to strong wind, instability, <1000m visibility

Reduced performance and possible structural damage

90
Q

Katabatic Wind

A

Night
Land loses heat by terrestrial radiation
Gravity pulls cooler air down the slope

91
Q

Anabatic Wind

A

Day
Sun heats up the ground and air above, therefore less molecules are present and it begins to rise
Cooler air flows up the slope to replace it
Weaker as upward airflow is opposed by gravity
Supported by sea breeze

92
Q

Requirements for Mountain Waves

A

Requires a stable layer on top of a mountain with a height of >1000ft with wind coming from right angles at >25kts

93
Q

Mountain Waves

A

Significant turbulence on the lee side
Can result in lenticular clouds if sufficient moisture is present
Stationary clouds on downwind side
Altocumulus lenticularis
Rotor zone rotors (can have rotor clouds) below the crest

94
Q

The Föhn Effect

A

Moist air is forced up against a mountain
Cools to dew point and cloud forms
Rain falls on the upwind side, the moisture content reduces and air descends and warms on the lee side with a higher cloud base
Warm dry wind on the downwind side

95
Q

The Low Level Jet

A

Strongest in the early morning, prevalent in winter with long cold nights
Strong windshear and turbulence usually below 3,000ft AGL
Located over a plain and to the west of a mountain range
Disperse when the sun heats the surface inversion
High moving to a low but obstructed by mountain ranges

96
Q

Source region of Air Masses

A 
Sea (maritime)/land (continental)
By latitude (Tropical/Polar)
Tropical maritime (Tm), Tropical continental (Tc), Polar maritime (Pm), Polar continental (Pc)
97
Q

Fronts

A

Boundary between two air masses of differing temps

98
Q

Cold Front

A

Cold, dense air will wedge in under the warmer air
When approaching: decreased QNH, bad weather (gusts, squalls, turbulence, fast moving cloud and showers), north-westerly winds, cumulus
After: South-easterly winds, increased QNH, cumulus clouds due to hot air rising with potential thunderstorms, decreased temp

99
Q

Warm Front

A

Warm, less dense air will slope up against the cold air
Approaching: stratiform low level, nimbostratus, rising air is stable, heavy and continuous rain
After: weather becomes ‘fine’, increased surface temps

100
Q

Occluded Front

A

An active and fast moving cold front catches up with the slower moving warm air
The cold air forces the warmest air upwards
Embedded CB: thunderstorms are normally obscured by other types of cloud

101
Q

Quasi - Stationary Front

A

When 2 air mass systems become stationary and there is practically no horizontal movement
Disturbance from upper air may displace the system

102
Q

Visibility

A

Greatest horizontal distance at which someone can identify a dark object

103
Q

Factors Affecting Visibility

A 
Obscurations
Reported vs flight visibility
Slant visibility
Night and day visibility
Vertical visibility
104
Q

Obscurations

A

Moisture, smoke, dust/sand, pollution, sun

105
Q

Reported vs Flight Visibility

A

Reported: vis from the ground
Flight: vis from the cockpit

106
Q

Slant Visibility

A 
On final (looking at airfield at a slant)
Air to ground vis observed by the pilot from the cockpit
107
Q

Night and Day Visibility

A

Night vis is greater (certain things stand out better)

Day vis worst at dawn and dusk

108
Q

Vertical Visibility

A

On top of the airfield

In hundreds of feet

109
Q

Dew and Frost

A

Water vapour condensates in the form of dew when sufficient moisture is available during overnight cooling (clear night - max terrestrial)
When temp close to 0 degrees celcius or windy dew can turn to frost

110
Q

Fog

A

Horizontal vis < 1000m

111
Q

Mist

A

Horizontal vis equal to or greater than 1000m

112
Q

Types of Fog

A

Radiation
Advection
Frontal
Steam

113
Q

Radiation Fog

A

Requires clear nights, high humidity, light wind (>5kts)
Forms late at night or just after sunrise (mixing due to heat)
Insolation (sunrise) causes mixing of the air just above the ground and dissipates as the ground gets warmer
Is thin and evaporates due to the terrestrial heat radiated from below due to insolation or a strong wind and forming of low stratus cloud

114
Q

Advection Fog

A

Warm, humid air is passing horizontally over a cold surface

Dissipates by strong winds (>15kts) or reduced humidity, or a change in wind direction

115
Q

Fog Due to Mixing

A

Radiation = 2-5kts (light wind)
Small or no difference between OAT and dew point
Advection Fog = 10-15kts (stronger wind)

116
Q

Frontal Fog

A

Cloud forms on the frontal boundary of the warm front
Warm rain causes the colder air below to become saturated
Fog or stratus cloud forms ahead of the frontal line

117
Q

Steam Fog

A

Forms on top of water (arctic waters)

118
Q

Dangers of Fog

A

Visibility into sun is greatly reduced

119
Q

Types of Icing

A

Hoar frost
Clear ice
Rime ice

120
Q

Requirements for Icing

A

Visible moisture
Freezing temperature
Freezing airframe temperature

121
Q

Hoar Frost/White Frost

A

Night time cooling close to the ground
Deposits of ice crystals
Negatively affects the aerodynamics of the wings

122
Q

Rime Ice (Airframe Icing)

A
  • 10 to -20 degrees celcius
    Small super cooled water droplets (freeze on impact)
    Opaque in colour due to air spaces between frozen droplets
123
Q

Clear Ice (Airframe Icing)

A

Large drops of freezing rain
Cumuliform or nimbostratus cloud
The drop flows backwards on the cold surface before it freezes
No air trapped inside the ice and is therefore transparent and difficult to see

124
Q

Dangers of Icing

A

Can impact prop, windscreen, engine intakes, antennae
Increased weight, decreased lift, increased drag, decreased thrust (prop icing), decreased vis, blocked pitot tubes, may restrict control surfaces, reduced braking action on the runway

125
Q

Warm Fronts and Icing

A

Rain falling from the warmer air through the colder air may become severe clear ice
Flying into a lowering cloud base due to a warm front may present you with severe icing conditions

126
Q

Conditions for a Thunderstorm

A

Humidity (abundance of moisture)
An ELR of >3 degrees celcius/1000ft (unstable atmosphere)
Lifting force (eg. orographic, convection, convergence, frontal activity, etc)

127
Q

Stages of a Thunderstorm

A
  1. Growing/Cumulus
  2. Mature
  3. Dissipating
128
Q

Growing/Cumulus Stage of a Thunderstorm

A

Lots of up-draughts

No precipitation

129
Q

Mature Stage of a Thunderstorm

A 
Up and down-draughts causing turbulence
Lightening
Possible hail
Wind shear
Gust front can cause roll clouds
Precipitation
Anvil at the top
Wind change 180 degrees = runway change
130
Q

Dissipating Stage of a Thunderstorm

A

Mainly down-draughts
Continuous precipitation until cloud is empty
Storm moves in direction of the anvil

131
Q

Orographic Storm

A

Day or night
Humid air is forced to rise over an obstruction
Air continues to rise after condensation

132
Q

Lightening

A

Faulty ADF and compass readings

Temporary effect on night vision of the pilot

133
Q

Down-Draughts Due to Cloud

A

Strong underneath
Fly through the areas which are brightest with increased visibility
Eg. Virga

134
Q

Microbursts

A

Often associated with CB’s (severe wind shear)
Very strong downburst with a small diameter (10km)
Airflow spreads out near the ground

135
Q

4 Stages of Tropical Cyclones

A
  1. Formative (eye forming)
  2. Immature (strong winds)
  3. Mature (gale force winds)
  4. Decaying (die out to rain depression)
136
Q

Formative Stage of a Cyclone

A

Start with a low pressure system in an area approx 5 - 15 degrees South
Develop in tropical oceans with water > 28 degrees celcius
<1000 hPa

137
Q

Immature Stage of a Cyclone

A

Pressure gradient near centre too steep to plot
Winds light and variable inside the eye
Strong winds > 120kts around the eye with CB

138
Q

Mature Stage of a Cyclone

A

Surface pressure approx 950 hPa
Strongest wind in left forward quadrant
NS with spiral bands of Cu and CB

139
Q

Decaying Stage of a Cyclone

A

Die out or become rain depressions once they move inland or move towards the colder pole (water temp < 26 degrees celcius) or beyond 15 degrees South
Over land: colder and drier air, increased surface friction
Widespread rain may continue for several days

140
Q

Tornado

A

Over land
Massive convergence with sharply inclined isobars
Rotating twist due to differing winds that become a spiral
Exposed to cold and warm air
Massive super-cell thunderstorm < 300m in diameter
Wind speeds up to 200kts

141
Q

Funnel Cloud

A

Tornado which does not touch the ground

142
Q

Water Spouts

A

Over water touching the surface

143
Q

Aerodrome Forecast

A

TAF

TTF - 3 hours

144
Q

Area Forecast

145
Q

Reports

A

SPECI, METAR, ATIS

146
Q

Advices

A

Sigmets, airmets

147
Q

Aircraft

A

Aireps: from the pilot

148
Q

Aerodrome Categories

A

Cat A, B, C, D
Cat A: Issued 6 hourly validity 24 hrs
Cat B: Issued 6 hourly validity up to 18 hrs

149
Q

TAF

A

True wind direction
AGL
5nm radius of the aerodrome
Statement of expected conditions

150
Q

Tempo

A

< 1hr or less than 1/2 the forecast time (60 mins HLD fuel)

151
Q

Inter

A

Less than 30 mins (carry 30 mins of fuel)

152
Q

Dew Point Temp Difference

A

Small: humid
Large: dry air needs to rise

PPL (4 decks)

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