Metaethics

Question 1

What are ‘ought’ statements?

Answer 1

Hume claims ‘ought’ statements are judgements, normative statements, values dependent on humans

Question 2

What are ‘is’ statements?

Answer 2

Hume claims ‘it’ statements are statements about the world which are descriptive, discovered by fact, independent of humans

Question 3

Explain Hume’s is-ought problem/why he claims we can’t derive ought from is

Answer 3

• Hume claims ‘is’ and ‘ought’ statements are in totally different realms.
• Many ethicists make the mistake of going from statements about the world to statements about how we ought to behave
• Hume argues you cannot move from statements about the world to what a human might do as it is illogical.
• there is nothing in a descriptive statement that allows us to proceed from what people actually do to making a rule ahoy what people should do
• Factual to value is a logical error

Question 4

What is Moore’s naturalistic fallacy?

Answer 4

• A naturalistic fallacy is committed ‘whenever a philosopher attempts to prove a claim about ethics through appealing to a definition of the term good by using a natural property such as pleasing or desirable’
• Moore argues it is not acceptable to confuse good with natural properties or had it to be identical with such property.

Question 5

Naturalistic fallacy: explain why Moore thinks attempts to define goodness are futile

Answer 5

• Naturalistic theories of ethics attempt to define good in terms of something that can be defined in the world - for example claiming that which is natural is good
• These are non-moral concepts since there is nothing intrinsically food about happiness/fitness/health - they are only good if we define them as such
• According to Moore there is nothing intrinsically good about these things because not everyone will agree they are good

Question 6

Naturalistic fallacy: Explain why Moore criticises ethical naturalism

Answer 6

• Naturalistic theories of ethics incorrectly attempt to define good in terms of something that can be defined in the world
• He uses this argument to support moral intuitions, and reject naturalism - good cannot be explained by comparing it to positive things naturally occurring in the world
• Goodness is self evident, no natural problem we can discover through the empirical sciences could be identical to good and in the end humans have tp just fall back on their initial intuition

Question 7

Moore’s intuitionism: Explain the key things intuitionism teaches

Answer 7

• There are real objective moral truths which are independent of humans = cognitive
• These are fundamental truths which can’t be broken down into parts or defined by reference to anything else - goodness is a simple concept
• Humans can discover these truths by using their minds in a particular, intuitive way

Question 8

Moore’s intuitionism: Describe Moore’s comparison between good and yellow

Answer 8

• We know what yellow is but we can’t define it
• We know what good is and we can’t define it
• ‘Good is good and that is the end of the matter’

Question 9

Moore’s intuitionism: What does he say about morality

Answer 9

• Morality is objective and cognitive
• Intuitionists argue we just know what goodness is
• It exists independently of humans

Question 10

Moore’s intuitionism: How do we make moral decisions

Answer 10

• We work out right and wrong by looking at the impact consequences have upon an action
• If the consequence is right, (we’ll know it) it becomes good
• This presents Moore’s intuitionism as teleological

Question 11

Moore’s intuitionism: What is the open question argument?

Answer 11

• Used to disprove naturalism
• When a naturalist claims that goodness consists of things that lead to pleasure, we can then identify one of those things and ask ‘But is it good?’ - it may well be that something leads to pleasure but isn’t intrinsically good in itself
• So naturalistic definitions cannot be correct

Question 12

Moore’s intuitionism: What does Moore say about proving moral judgements

Answer 12

• They can never be proved empirically
• We don’t use scientific observation/logical analysis to percieve good
• We recognise good things empirically
• Moral judgements are incapable of being proved

Question 13

Moore’s intuitionism: Explain the difference between complex and simple ideas

Answer 13

• Simple = ideas that can’t be broken down
• Complex = ideas that can be broken down using other ideas

Question 14

Moore’s intuitionism: The trolley problem

Answer 14

• Trolley problem provides a clear example of the balance between utilitarian and intuitionist approach to moral dilemmas
• trolley hurtles towards five people tied to the track - the only way to save them is by pulling a lever which sends the trolley down another track killing one other person - what do you choose
• Utilitarian: kill one to save five - however many people faced with this argument cannot bring themselves to actively choose to kill people
• It is at its heart a clash between a utilitarian assessment and a deeply held intuition that killing the innocent is always wrong
• That intuition is justified with reference to the absolute prohibition of killing but it still remains the foundation of much thinking

Question 15

Moore’s intuitionism: Give the strengths of intuitionism

Answer 15

• Allows for objective moral values to be identified and therefore proposes a form of moral realism
• Allows us to answer issues clearly
• Not subjective but does avoid the problems of identifyign ethics with a natural property - avoids complex debate
• Whilst we may recognise the wrongness of some actions it can be difficult to specify why they are wrong - rather we interpret it through a moral sense - appeals to human nature
• Allows for moral duties /obligations so satisfies a moral absolutist
• Points to the existence of a common consensus on moral issues - eg valuer of human life

Question 16

Moore’s intuitionism: Give the weaknesses of intuitionism

Answer 16

• People intuit and reason to different conclusions and there is no obvious way to resolve their differences - morality is subjective - Nietzsche’s ‘ethical colourblindness’
• We can never be sure our intuitions are correct
• Intuition is non-verifiable so it could be considered meaningless
• Hume argues we may have a motivation for acting in certain ways although intuitionists may respond to this by saying that if we have a motivation to do something it is because we have an innate desire which goes beyond reason
• Non cognitive ethics argues good can be defined

Question 17

Moore’s intuitionism: How did HA Prichard build on his work?

Answer 17

• Reason collects the facts and intuition determines which course of action to follow
• Distinguished between General thinking (reasoning) used to assess facts of a situation
  and Moral thinkign based on an immediate intuition about the right thing to do
• People have different intuitions about what is right

Question 18

Moore’s intuitionism: How did WD Ross build on his work?

Answer 18

• What is right is always unique depending on what is morally suitable to the situation
• We never know all the facts about the situation so we base our judgements about what is right/wrong on intuitions
• It is obviosu certain actiosn are right/wrong - prima facie duties
• When these duties conflict we act based on what we think is right - first sight duties

Question 19

WD Ross and Prima Facie Duties: Who was Ross?

Answer 19

• moral realist, ethical non-naturalist, intuitionist

Question 20

WD Ross and Prima Facie Duties: Explain why he asiad conflicting duties were an issue

Answer 20

• People sometimes have conflicting duties and it is not always obvious which should take priority

Question 21

WD Ross and Prima Facie Duties: Describe prima facie duties

Answer 21

• Duties we feel instinctively we must do - e.g duties of fidelity (keep promises), duties of reparation (obligation to right a wrongful act)
• Means ‘first face’
• By this he meant that if there are no conflicting circumstances between duties each one is absolute, however if there are, you must balance them and consider what to do
• Ross advocates we should be reasonable and sensible enough to work this out - we are rational animals and can use reason to judge
• ’ The moral order expressed in these duties is just as much part of the fundamental part of the universe as… the spatial or numerical structure expressed in the axioms of geometry’

Question 22

WD Ross and Prima Facie Duties: What did HA Prichard say about moral duties?

Answer 22

• Working out right/wrong is our duty, we use intuition to work it out
• ## When people disagree about morality one person’s moral thinking si simply not developed enough - weak!

Question 23

What is ethical non-naturalism?

Answer 23

Metaethical view that moral knowledge is a factual property known by intuition or God’s commands for example

Question 24

DCT: Describe DCT

Answer 24

• The non natural view that morality is defined by God’s commands revealed through scripture and the church - God is the origin and regulator of morality
• A right moral action is one God commands and a wrong one is one he condemns - eg his act of commanding something makes it good
• Commands are right in an objective sense (mind independent) - becoming good is simply a matter of following
• christians believe god exists and therefore the fundamental nature of reality includes divinity- since morality is what god commands, morality therefore has a metaphysical foundation in reality
  -Cognitive, deontological

Question 25

DCT: Explain how DCT relates to God’s omnipotence

Answer 25

If there were a command superior to God’s command, then God would be inferior to that thing.
- However God is all powerful and cannot be inferior to or subject to anything else
- IF goodness were not a matter of command, then God would be unable to change what is good/bad or make something good/bad - he’d no longer be omnipotent
- Therefore omnipotence must involve power over morality

Question 26

DCT: Describe religious legalism

Answer 26

• Believer argues that every law contained in scripture must be followed
• Aka religious fundamentalism

Question 27

DCT: Describe the difference between religious ethics and secular ethics

Answer 27

• Religious ethics: ethics that generally state that moral values come from God
• Secular ethics state that religious ethics do not come from God /religion, but they are rather from authority powers like the government or societal values

Question 28

DCT: Describe Richard Dawkins and his belief that society would be better without religion UNFINISHED

Answer 28

• Argues religion can cause immorality and is pernicious
• Wrote ‘The God delusion’

Question 29

DCT: Compare Catholic and Protestant DCT

Answer 29

• Both accept divine commands but Protestantism focuses on the revelation of scripture - divine commands emanate from the bible
• Catholic: accepts revelation through scripture but magesterium has a role to play in interpreting divine commands, and NML helps reveal god’s divine will and commands

Question 30

DCT: Describe Protestant DCT

Answer 30

• God is creator of everything and origin of morality
• Humans are made in the image of God (have a rational and moral character) but are corrupted by the Fall so human nature should literally follow GOd’s commands and be reliant on it
• Sola scripture - God’s commands are seen in scripture
• Protestant DCT is based on both God’s moral character and his moral commands and these commands are seen as statements of God’s will

Question 31

DCT: Explain John Calvin’s view on DCT

Answer 31

• Used it to justify his ideas of predestination - ‘the will of God is the supreme rule of righteousness’
• God cannot be caused to do anything - this would imply a force external to God - to challenge god’s will is to ask for something greater (doesn’t exist), therefore for Calvin DCT is a natural result of the absolute power of God

Question 32

DCT: Describe Barth’s view on DCt

Answer 32

• ‘How can God be understood as the Lord if this does not involve the problem of human obedience’
• Uses this to argue that although people have always tried to understand good and define it this isnt his concern in terms of christian doctrine - for man’s obedience to God is the answer to all questions about ethics. The commands of God set christian ethics apart from general discussiosn abotu good/right,
• Not concerned about defining good or precepts or eudaimonia .

Question 33

DCT: Describe Catholic interpretation of DCT

Answer 33

• Recognises the fallibility of individual leaders but believes Christ gave authority to the leaders of the church like the pope to make pronouncements on matters of doctrine and ethics
  -This doesn’t make the Pope infallible on ordinary matters, but special pronouncements based on his papal authority are infallible
• For catholics they represent the will of christ and shouldn’t be challenged on the basis of human will or evidence

Question 34

DCT: Describe Plato’s Euthyphro Dilemma

Answer 34

• Biggest challenge to DCT
• Logical problem: ‘ Is conduct right because the Gods command it, or do the Gods command it because it is right’

Question 35

DCT: Explain the first horn of the dilemma and its implications

Answer 35

• First Horn: ‘ Is conduct right because the gods command it’ -
• God loses his omnibenevolence
• God in scripture seems to command all sorts of immoral actions - can God be good if he commands murder, eg Abraham and Isaac (although Kirkegaard responds by saying Abraham is the knight of faith and this is a test of faith revealing its deeply personal nature - he must suspend his commitment to morality to undertake this DC)
• Accepting the first horn means god loses moral goodness - some of gods commands go against fundamental values of secular ethics and go against other biblical images of God

Question 36

DCT: Explain the second horn of the Euthyphro dilemma and its implications

Answer 36

• ’ Do the gods command it because it is good’
• God loses his omnipotence
• IT implies that God commands an action because it is right but then it raises the question of how does god know it is good in itself
• The answer can only be that God recognises there is a moral law external to himself and he has to obey it
• In that case God has to be subject to the moral law and loses his omnipotence

Question 37

DCT: Describe William of Ockam’s solution to the Euthyphro dilemma

Answer 37

• Adopted the first horn, ‘bite the bullet’ approach
• God is god - so omnipotent and omniscient so even if he commands genocide he must be obeyed

Question 38

DCT: Describe the solution to the Euthyphro dilemma which argues that gods nature = his character

Answer 38

• God’s nature and character are the same
• God and moral goodness are identical so moral commands must still be good
• Sounds reasonable but doesn’t explain his bad commands

Question 39

DCT: Describe the solution to the Euthyphro dilemma that argues that part of the bible are corrupt

Answer 39

• The text of the parts of the bible describing god’s immoral commands is corrupt and doesn’t mean what it says - however if some parts are corrupt, all could be !
  -If scripture is corrupt we have no way of knowing what gods commands are
• What is the point of reading the bible???

Question 40

DCt: Describe the strengths of DCT

Answer 40

• Objective foundation for morality (claims moral principles are grounded in the unchanging will of a divine being) offers moral charity and stability
• Simple and accessible as it doesn’t rely on complex philosophical concepts
• Provides moral guidance from scripture - good for theists
• Motivational aspect: often includes the reward of good behaviour through the concepts of divine rewards and punishments - believers are motivated to act morally due to the desire for divine approval
• Supports a moral realist perspective : DCT supports moral realism by positing the existence of moral facts grounded in divine commands - contributes to idea that morality is more than just a human invention and moral statements are true regardless of human beliefs
• Fosters a sense of community and cohesion among believers who share the same moral framework

Question 41

DCT: Describe the weaknesses of DCT

Answer 41

• Religiously dependent, relies on belief of a specific deity - inaccessible and irrelevant to anyone else
• Different people interpret commands differently - leading to potential conflicts and inconsistencies in moral beliefs
• Euthyphro dilemma
• Can lead to a lack of moral responsibility because individuals may follow commands blindly without critical ethical reflection
• Outdated so doesn’t provide specific moral guidance for modern issues
• Contradictory rules within the bible causing confusion and moral ambiguity for believers

Question 42

Define ethical naturalism

Answer 42

Moral statements can be correctly defined from observation of the natural world
- Eg utilitarianism - pleasure points to goodness

Question 43

Describe naturalism

Answer 43

• Moral values are discovered by observation of the world
• Moral values are elements of the universe and are discoverable and understandable to humans
• Moral realist theory - moral facts/truths actually exist - if they didn’t;t, there would be no real justification for human actions
• Cognitivist - statements about reality are either objectively true/false - moral statements are meaningful

Question 44

Naturalism: Give examples of observations of the world in ethical naturalism

Answer 44

1) Empathy and compassion - naturalists might observe that when people show empathy and compassion to others it tends to lead to positive outcomes - they therefore might conclude they are morally good traits
2)Social cooperation - by observing societies throughout history we can see that societies work better when people cooperate and work towards common goals - therefore they might conclude this is a morally good trait

Question 45

Utilitarianism: Describe Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism

Answer 45

• Bentham wanted to set up a new moral rule everyone could relate to and easily follow, a hands on principle that could be used to remodel the English legal system
• empirical observation
• Consequentialist theories - it is the consequence which makes something right/wrong
• Act Utilitarianism: We should act so as to maximise pleasure and minimise pain in each specific instance, focusing on actions not rules : ‘nature has placed mankind under the governance of two masters, pleasure and pain’
• Pleasure/pain motivates and directs our lives and what we ought to do - arguing a natural feature of life determines both descriptive and normative ethics
• Teleological, relative - doesn’t believe in moral absolutes - pain is intrinisic evil pleasure = intrinsic good

Question 46

Utilitarianism: How does Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism say we should make moral decisions?

Answer 46

-Seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number

Question 47

Utilitarianism: Describe Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus

Answer 47

• Happiness is based on our observation of it as a natural phenomenon so we can calculate it objectively in terms of its intensity, duration, extent ( and more)- hedonic calculus
• It is a way to calculate and measure pleasure and pain based on pleasure

Question 48

Utilitarianism: Explain why Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism is a strong argument

Answer 48

• Humans generally do seek out pleasure for themselves and avoid things that cause pain - eg you wouldn’t eat nuts if you have a nut allergy
• It is therefore valid from experience at least

Question 49

Utilitarianism: explain the problems with Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus

Answer 49

• Impractically complicated to use in every situation
• How do we quantify and compare each of the seven variables
• How do we decide between short lasting and long lasting pleasures

Question 50

utilitarianism: Describe the problem of Act Utilitarianism relating to the moral status of particular relationships

Answer 50

• It is idealistic
• Certain people are more important to us that others , but act utilitarianism is concerned only with the greatest good for the greatest number so there are no grounds then to justify maximising their happiness over a random person’s
• Eg in reality, we’d rather save a person we knew

Question 51

Utilitarianism: Give some other problems with Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism

Answer 51

• You cannot predict the future so calculations may not always be accurate
• Pain can be good and pleasure can be bad - utilitarianism can therefore be contradicted
• What about animals and the environment??
• Some argue we have a particular obligation to our family, not the greater good
• The majority may sometimes be corrupt - eg two prison guards who get pleasure out of torturing one prison would bellowed to do it under A.U

Question 52

Utilitarianism: Describe Mill’s thoughts on Act Utilitarianism and how he developed it to his own theory

Answer 52

• Mill agreed with Bentham about the need for a better society but disagreed that all pleasures are equal
• He agreed with the Principle of Utility (greatest good for the greatest number)
• However he believed pleasure should be qualitative rather than quantitative - this avoids the wellbeing of an individual being ignored over the pleasure for the greatest number
• He worried that utilitarianism was being criticised for being more about pleasure seeking above more noble or moral acts
• He developed the principles of higher and lower pleasures - some kinds of pleasures are more desirable than others

Question 53

Utilitarianism: describe Mill’s Rule Utilitarianism - higher vs lower level goods

Answer 53

• Rejected Bentham’s idea that all pleasures are measurable and equal and instead argued there are higher cultural and intellectual acts to be preferred over lower physical ones
• He emphasised the importance of using reason to engage in higher-level pursuits that stimulate the intellectual and moral facilities
• he suggested it was more valuable to lead a life of intellectual and moral inquiry even if It involves some dissatisfaction rather than just pursuing lower pleasures
• Higher pleasures are qualitatively superior
  ‘It is quite compatible with the principle of utility… to recognise the fact that some kinds of pleasures are more desirable than others’
• For Mill Utilitarianism is about a fair and equal just distribution of those benefits

Question 54

Utilitarianism: describe Mill’s Rule Utilitarianism - the importance of rules

Answer 54

• Mill also argued for the importance of taking into account the positive benefits of general moral rules/principles - he argued many moral rules had developed naturally based on actions that had negative impacts on society
• It is better to establish rules than anticipating results of particular actions
• These rules had been justified because they produced a balance of pleasure over pain
• Weak Rule Utilitarianism: according to Mill we appeal to the utility principle only to establish moral rules - however on rare occasions, we may be caught in a moral dilemma between two conflicting rules - in such cases Mill argues we should appeal directly to the utility principle to decide which rule takes priority - flexibility means mill is a Weak rule utilitarian. rules are soft and more like guidelines to create a flourishing society which can be broken if necessary

Question 55

Utilitarianism: Describe the flaws Mill found with Bentham’s Utilitarianism

Answer 55

• Terrible things could be justified like torture/slavery as long as the majority agreed
• Bentham emphasised quantity over quality - the amount mattered more than the type of pleasure and of Mill this was a mistake
• higher pleasures were more important and reflects our capacities as humans
• Mill didn’t agree that ‘pushpin is equal to poetry’