Meta ethics: the meaning of right and wrong

Question 1

Define: Descriptive ethics

Answer 1

Describes and compares ethical standards in different societies.

Question 2

Define: Normative ethics

Answer 2

Asks questions about what ethical standards people should follow.

Question 3

Define: Applied ethics

Answer 3

Concerned with how principles of normative ethics are applied in particular areas of ethical concern. EG; medical or business ethics.

Question 4

Define: meta-ethics

Answer 4

concerned with the nature and purpose of morality, with what is meant by ‘right’ and ‘wrong’

Question 5

Define: cognitive ethics

Answer 5

claim that ethical judgments state facts and so are objectively true or false ( synthetic)

Question 6

Define: Non-cognitive ethics

Answer 6

Claim that ethical judgements are not statements of facts and so are not objectively true or false: implies moral knowledge is impossible.

Question 7

Define: ethical naturalism

Answer 7

View that ethical values stem from facts about the nature of the world or human nature.

Question 8

Define: ethical non-naturalism

Answer 8

The view that moral knowledge is a factual property known by intuition or by God’s commands, for example.

Question 9

What is ethical naturalism?

Answer 9

The term we use to show moral values can be described in terms of natural properties (eg: happiness)

We can understand and discover moral values because they are an objective part of the universe.

Question 10

Naturalism: Utilitarianism (cognitive)

recommendation on how we should behave

Answer 10

A utilitarian will see ‘the good’ in facts about pleasure and pain, misery etc., they form the normative theory that we ought to do that which brings the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Teleological: aims to bring about the greater good.

Consequentialist: it looks at the consequences of actions. Action = (deemed) good if it brings about good consequence.
Naturalist: goodness of an action is defined in terms of natural properties.

Question 11

Jeremy Bentham (English philosopher and political radical)
ACT utilitarianism
(follow rules of thumb)

Answer 11

1) Observation that human life focus on maximising pleasure and minimising pain.
Should direct all moral decision making + behaviour.
2) The sole intrinsic good is happiness, good in itself and not some other valuable thing it produces. Bentham understood in terms of pleasure.
3) We can use observable facts of pain and pleasure to determine moral obligation. It is a formula to act in the way to seek the greatest happiness.
4) Focus on actions not moral rules

Question 12

JB Quote

Answer 12

“Nature has placed mankind under 2 sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do”
SOURCE: An introduction to the principles of morals and legalisation.
principle of utility: “ an action is right if it brings the greatest pleasure for the greatest number”

Question 13

JB hedonic (pleasure based) / felicific calculus
What is it?
7 criteria?

Answer 13

Devised for assessing whether a proposed action would maximise pleasure overall. (purely quantitative assessment)
7 criteria:
intensity ( quantity )
Duration ( length of time )
Certainty ( probability )
Propinquity ( Personal affect + how near to )
Fecundity ( likelihood to be followed by similar P/P )
Purity ( Likelihood to be followed by opposite P?/P )
Extent ( amount of people affected )
Goodness of action id judges by the amount of pleasure brought to outcome.

Question 14

John Stewart Mill
Difference in approach?
Ethical naturalist
RULE utilitarianism

Answer 14

Introduces a more consequentialist approach.

1) Mill didn’t agree that all pleasures are = and can be measured.
2) Believed in quality of life > amount of pleasure.
3) Distinguished between higher (intellectual + aesthetic) and lower (Physical) pleasures.
4) Believed was a rule > act utilitarian: though still a naturalistic theory.
5) Moral rules have developed naturally (stealing, murdering) = beneficial effects on society. Such principles were justified since they produce a balance of pleasure over pain/ happiness over unhappiness.

Question 15

John Stewart Mill

Quote

Answer 15

Exponent (supporter of idea) of utilitarianism and English philosopher.
“It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied “ Utilitarianism (Mill)

Question 16

Advantages to Utilitarianism

Answer 16

1) Factual and empirical nature of preposition.
2) Objective nature of right/wrong enables us to assess actions. Help given guidelines + rules: punishment for those who break them = justified.
3) ability to know consequences, link morality with the pursuit of happiness + avoidance of pain.

Question 17

Disadvantages to Utilitarianism

Answer 17

1) G.E Moore accuses naturalist theories of committing the naturalistic fallacy, “is” does not lead to “ought”
good= undefinable ; any attempt to define it leads to “but is it good to do X?”
2) you cannot predict the future so calculations aren’t always accurate.
3) some say we have a particular obligation to our family
4) There can be no moral rules if morality is just subjective personal preference.
5) Singer

Question 18

Counter-responses

Neo-naturalism

Answer 18

1) Neo-naturalism suggests biological + sociological facts about humans lead to the conclusion that practice virtues = essential to fulfilment of our nature. Overrides the problem of N.F.
2) Reject approach to ethical non-cognitivism, leading to social anarchy + trivializing important human convictions that certain acts are in themselves wrong, whether seen from a deon or tele angle.

Question 19

Neo-naturalism

define?

Answer 19

A new form of ethical naturalism, argues that morality does have factual content : “good” leads to the flourishing of humans or entire environment.

Question 20

A.J Ayer
who?
Emotivism

Answer 20

-Emotivist and logical positivist thus took non-cognitive approach to meta-ethics.
-Believed ethical language subjective not objective.
-Ethical language is simply liking / disliking an action
EG: “Murder is wrong” is “I don’t like murder” called this “hurrah-boo” theory
-Claimed any expression of emotion same as saying “ouch” = meaningless
-Ethical statements are neither analytical or synthetic = meaningless

Question 21

G.E Moore

who?

Answer 21

t

Question 22

Examples

Answer 22

t

Question 23

G.E Moore

Intuitionism general idea?

Answer 23

Exponent of Intuitionism: moral knowledge is a factual property known by intuition.
1) “good” is an irreducible term.
It is a quality that cannot be broken down or analysed.
However, when pointed out can be recognised and understood.
2) Used the simple concept of colour “yellow”
cannot break down or explain further, yet can be recognised.
3) human knowledge of right + wrong comes from our fundamental moral intuitions, not logical deductions from the world + logical deductions.
4) Our moral sense just tells us that something is right or wrong, without appeal to consequences or reasoned arguments.

Question 24

G.E Moore
Intuitionism general idea?
universal

Answer 24

Exponent of Intuitionism: moral knowledge is a factual property known by intuition.
1) “good” is an irreducible term.
It is a quality that cannot be broken down or analysed.
However, when pointed out can be recognised and understood.
2) Used the simple + indefinable concept of “yellow”
cannot break down or explain further, yet can be recognised.
3) human knowledge of right + wrong comes from our fundamental moral intuitions, not logical deductions from the world + logical deductions.
4) Our moral sense just tells us that something is right or wrong, without appeal to consequences or reasoned arguments.
5) Also used “open question” for utilitarian any action gives a balance of p/p = “good”
“This action maximises utility, but is it good?” = closed question- “yes, because maximising utility”
Moore = proves to be “open” question; “But is it good to bring about more pleasure than pain?” Nothing unintelligible about question to person who asks it, thus something wrong with utilitarianism.
Definitions of closed questions = acceptable + may be used in moral discourse: open questions = meaningless + transmit no ethical value.

Question 25

Prima facie duties (6)

W.D Ross

Answer 25

1) objective nature of right + wrong gives us access to assess actions + give guidelines.
2) peoples intuitions may point them into different directions, Ross accepted conflicting duties + not obvious which takes priority.
3) prima facie duties:
keep promises
revenge
Don’t injure
Returning favours
No harm with innocent
look after parents
4) claimed intuitionism is how to chose between conflicting duties.
5) No conflict within these duties then duty to practise is absolute.
6) Conflict = careful thinking of dilemma = intuitively tell us what takes priority. Failure to agree, suggests a persons thinking insufficiently matured or reasoned.

Question 26

Two-Rule utilitarianism

Answer 26

Morality based on rules + customs = acceptable for most situations, occasionally we use utilitarian thinking, where we consider consequences.
Richard Hare talks about morality for archangels + proles.

Question 27

Preference utilitarianism

Answer 27

Singer: influenced by teacher RM Hare, who believed in moral decision making : “ = preferences count equally, whatever their content”

1) people are happy when they get what they prefer, since our preference may clash with others we should “stand in other peoples shoes”
2) Singer thinks hedonistic utilitarianism is for people who cant imagine their own future, preference utilitarianism is for people who can.

Question 28

strengths of intuitionism

Answer 28

1) Overcomes problem of disagreement among ethical naturalists, as to what the underlying basis of right + wrong. ( Simply intuition)
2) Fits in with universal moral intuition, eg: most peoples intuitive sense says murder is wrong, thought killing someone in self defence or in war is not.
3) we can identify a moral sense in the same way as we might identify an aesthetic sense in art or literature.
4) Doesn’t propose a subjective or emotive approach approach to ethics, doesn’t avoid problems of identifying ethics with natural properties

Question 29

weaknesses of intuitionism

Answer 29

1) Ethical non-cognitivists reject basis of moral judgment in fact. Morality consists of subjective statement of approval.
2) Where doe situation come from? is it part of the brain, an emotion, we cant locate or observe it so does it exist?
3) Hume said we have a motivation for acting in certain ways, although intuitionism may respond, with suggestion we feel motivated towards action because we have innate desire to do it that goes beyond reason
4) Intuition may be considered a meaningless concept since it’s non verifiable

Question 30

DCT (non-naturalist theory)
define?
claims?
deontological

Answer 30

Cognitive theory;
There is an objective right and wrong that can be shown through true or false.
non-naturalist,doesn’t base ethics on facts of empirical or other natural experience.
1) Moral commands come from God, unlike intuitionism, its a form of religious ethics.
2) Humans are created in the image of God, thus reflect moral character from God. However, nature has been corrupted by the fall, so are wholly reliant on God’s grace to have understanding of right/wrong.

Question 31

Karl Barth
Quote?
claimed?
Divine command theory

Answer 31

“For the question of good and evil has been decided and settled once and for all in the decree of God”
SOURCE: Church Dogmatics, Barth.

20th century, Claimed humanity’s obedience to God was the answer to all ethical questions. Although, not dismissive of secular ethics, there can be no compromise with it.

Question 32

Strengths DCT

Answer 32

1) Makes sense to theists, its basis in an objective existence of omnipotent, omnibenevolent + just God makes sense to religious believers.
2) Deontological nature of theory means its rules are absolute + exceptionalness for all times + places.
3) Very clear-cut theory. What God says goes
4) Promise of life after death gives purpose to morality

Question 33

weaknesses DCT

Answer 33

1) Many rules and practices in Bible seem outdates + immoral. Thus, difficult to know what commands to obey. Don’t have original copies of Old + New testament, don’t know exactly what was said.
2) Euthyphro’s dilemma:
is something right because God says it is? He could command something immoral + we would need to obey.
OR does God command something because it is right?
Morality is independent if God, not omnipotent.
3)Limits autonomy as anyone with any sense would obey God to ensure going to heaven. = self-interested morality, doesn’t fit into Jesus’ ethical teaching.