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Mental Disorders and History of Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 2 types of stress stimuli?

A

Systemic: physical injuries/fears. Ex: pain, lack of O2, risk of pain
Processive: psychological, more long term and have a greater overall effect. Ex: financial, social.

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2
Q

What are 2 psychological ways you can measure stress (i.e., tests)?

A
  1. SRRS: life events over 12 months

2. Daily Hassles: daily hassles over a month (Kanner)

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3
Q

What are the primary and secondary appraisals in terms of stress?

A
  1. Primary appraisal: assessment of the meaning of the stimulus (negative or positive, etc.)
  2. Secondary appraisal: assessment of resources available
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4
Q

Explain how the autonomic nervous system relates to stress.

A
  • Responsible for the flight or fight response (epinephrine), and cool down after the stress (norepinephrine)
  • Norep. and epinep. are catecholamines released from the adrenal gland, along with steroids: cortisol.
  • adrenal medullary system: autonomic system from hypothalamus to adrenal medulla (fast acting)
  • Hypothalamic-pituitary system: hypothalamus releases cortisol-related-hormones to pituitary gland which releases hormone to adrenal cortex to release cortisol
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5
Q

What is the general adaptation syndrome developed by Hans Selye?

A

Hans selye generalized a universal response to stress: Alarm (physiological shock, adrenal-medullary system in peak, sym. n.s. kicks in), resistance (cortisol), exhaustion (cannot continue adaptation to stress and immune system becomes compromised).

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6
Q

What are the 2 body mechanisms when it comes to adaptations to stress?

A
  1. Homeostatic: maintaining balances requires return to baseline
  2. Allostasis: responding to stimuli/stress to maintain homeostasis (change).
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7
Q

Explain the differences between long and short term stress in terms of brain physiology.

A
  1. Long term: cortisol affects the hippocampus because of the high cortisol receptor density. Does this by affecting the dendrites, decreasing neurogenesis, and then leading to decreased neural plasticity (impair memory and chage brain volume).
  2. Short term: Increases memory ability (adaptive reasons).
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8
Q

What is the biopsychosocial model when it comes to health psychology?

A

Looks at the overlap between genetics/hormones, thoughts/emotions/behaviours, culture/status, and interactions to treat a disorder.

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9
Q

What is the physiological reactivity model?

A

An event can lead to a positive or negative appraisal which then leads to either a neg or pos emotion.
Stressors are perceived in different ways by different people: can have more of an effect on others, and therefore some people are more susceptible to mental illness.

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10
Q

Why is hard to change our behaviour, as humans?

A

We act according to the pleasure principle, and our society is not designed to encourage healthy behaviour.
- We are motivated by immediate and tangible results, where change typically takes a while to occur

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11
Q

What are the 3 groups of coping strategies?

A
  1. Problem-focused: trying to change the situation causing the stress
  2. Emotion-focused: regulating the experience of distress, usually when one feels like they can’t change the stressor
  3. Seeking social support: combines both through direct effects like socialization, and the buffering hypothesis stating social support buffers stress effects
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12
Q

What is mindfulness?

A

Paying attention to the present moment, intentionally or not, with no judgement.
Everybody does this to some degree, depending on situations (e.g., being with your significant other, eating a food you really like tends to increase this).
It improves mental health, stress, blood pressure, chronic pain, sleep and energy, immune function, and anxiety and mood.

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13
Q

What is the medical model to mental disorders?

A

Proposes thinking of mental disorders as a disease. This brought rise to better treatment.

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14
Q

Describe the DSM?

A

The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: Emil Krapelin developed this in 1952, based on symptoms and syndromes. Currently on the 5th edition, and has 22 major categories.

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15
Q

What is some of the controversy with DSM-5?

A
  1. It medicalizes normal behaviour/blurring lines.
  2. Mainly only based on north American culture/behaviour
  3. Arguments of too many categories with ignorance to biological underpinnings
  4. More dwelling on symptoms.
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16
Q

What are the 4 D’s of defining disorder?

A
  1. Disturbance: of though, emotions, or behaviour
  2. Dysfunction: of a biological system/developmental process
  3. Distress: (or disability) in everyday life to self or to others
  4. Deviant: thought or emotion, or behaviour , but only combined with dysfunction.
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17
Q

What are the disadvantages of “labelling” a person with a mental illness?

A
  1. Possible effects in social, career, and cultural life
  2. Allows them to understand why they have differences
  3. Can provide accomadations
  4. Mislabelling/or missing entirely can leading to large under-labelled people
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18
Q

What are examples of universal and culture specific disorders?

A

Universal: schizophrenia, depression, panic attacks
Culture specific: some anxiety disorders like in Japan the fear of offending others. Also anorexia mainly in western countries, but beginning to expand.

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19
Q

What is a comorbid disorder?

A

When someone has 2 mental illness with however much degree at the same time.

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20
Q

What age group is the most susceptible/likely to experience a mental/substance abuse disorder?

A

Between the ages of 15 and 24

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21
Q

How many people are currently suffering from a mental disorder and how many people do in their lifetime?

A

1/5 currently suffering

1/2 will in their lifetime

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22
Q

Briefly explain neurodevelopment disorders.

A
  • It is one of the 22 categories in the DSM, typically beginning at childhood and worsening.
  • Examples include communication problems, autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, learning disorders, motor disorders.
  • Most don’t go away but severity can chagne
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23
Q

What are the 3 impairment categories of ADHD?

A
  1. Inattention
  2. Hyperactivity
  3. Impulsivity
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24
Q

What are the requirements for a diagnosis?

A
  1. Impairment in 2 or more of the categories, with typically 6 symptoms in each for kids, and 5 for adults.
  2. Symptoms present before the age of 12
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25
Q

How does ADHD differ between boys and girls?

A

-Typically 2-4% for girls, and 6-9% for boys, with a 6:1 ratio of being referred
- Boys tend to be more defiant and aggressive, where girls tend to show more setbacks in attention
-Ratios become more equal in adolescence and adulthood
DSM criteria/cutoffs also my be more applicable and favoured toward male ADHD

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26
Q

What are some of the effects/consequences of ADHD?

A

It can affect education, occupation, and relationships.

Are more at risk for substance abuse, arrests/incarceration, and other mental health difficulties

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27
Q

What are some of the theories and causes of ADHD?

A
  • Genetics (20-50% have another family member with it, monozygotic twins show correspondence).
  • Environmental factors from parents with ADHD (i.e., they partake in more risky behaviour)
  • Brain differences include: elevated development in basal ganglia, amygdala; frontal lobe under arrousal; dopamine deficiency
  • Food additives show a link, where sugar DOES NOT
  • Blood lead levels show a link
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28
Q

What are the 2 sets of core symptoms in autism-spectrum disorder?

A
  1. Impaired social communication and interactions

2. Repetitive behaviours and restricted interests

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29
Q

What are the variances with intellectuality in ADHD?

A
  1. About 25-50% of children have occurring intellectual impairments
  2. Occasionally high function autism occurs
  3. Savant skills are possible but not common
  4. Show comorbid cognitive difficulties (i.e. poor executive functions)
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30
Q

Briefly explain the diagnostic techniques and statistics of Autism.

A
  1. Infant sibling studies are when researchers bring in siblings of children with autism with the idea that their siblings are also likely to also develop it. This allows them to look at the very early precursors to autism, including: poor eye contact, decreased babbling, less positive affect, less interest in faces). Thus earlier diagnosis around the age of 6 months.
  2. Prevalence is consistent around the world, where girls are 4-5 times less likely than males to be diagnosed.
  3. Typically not diagnosed till age 4 due to the lack of biological markers, and in functioning individuals diagnosis may not be until adolescence or adulthood.
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31
Q

What are causes and connections of autism?

A
  1. Genetics play a large role, and is a multi-gene complex. Environmental factors affect whether the genes are expressed: specifically in utero and early development.
  2. Shows link with more problems before, during, and after birth.
  3. Paternal (fathers) age plays a large age.
  4. Linked to higher traffic pollutant concentrations
  5. No structural brain differences
  6. Differences in brain connections
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32
Q

What is classified as a major depressive disorder?

A

Period of at least 2 weeks of depressed mood and/or loss of interest along with 4 other symptoms: changes in body weight/appetite, sleep problems, changes in energy levels, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, poor concentration, suicidal thoughts
- Cannot have mania/elevated mood period (thats bipolar disorder)

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33
Q

Explain the statistics with Depression.

A
  • high mortality: 15% commit suicide
  • 2x higher in females
  • Typically onset in 20s with females, and 40s with males
  • More substance abuse in males
  • Rates similar in children and adolescnes
  • Recurrence rate of 50% (episodes), 80% if had one episode usually within 5 years of the last.
  • On average 5-9 episodes in a lifetime
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34
Q

What are the causes and links of depression?

A
  • Combination of brain chemistry and life circumstances
  • Diathesis-stress model: serotonin transport gene (2 short alleles) but only in accordance of stressful events
  • The under activity or nor/epinephrine, dopamine and serotonin linked
  • Low reactivity of emotional centres
  • Higher avoidant and low-reward-orietned personalities
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35
Q

What is the cognitive model of depression?

A

Cognitive bias for negative events, memories, and perceptions, leading to increased negative thoughts, emotions, and then symptoms of depression. Critical outlook on life also has a strong connection.

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36
Q

What is the behavioural model of depression?

A

The decreased award seeking and avoidance leads to social isolation, further increasing depression.
Inadequate positive reinforcers/many punishers will bring on depression.

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37
Q

What are the criteria for Bipolar 1 disorder?

A

Requires at least one episode of mania (depression not a requirement but almost always present). Normal moods tend to occur in between episodes.

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38
Q

What are the criteria for Bipolar 2 disorder?

A

An episode of hypomania and major depressive disorder, but no mania.

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39
Q

What are the differences in hypomania and mania?

A

Mania: distracted, grandiosity, flight of ideas, increase activity, decreased sleep. Presents as risky behaviours.
Hypomania: (lessened mania) is shorter duration (less than a week) and has lessened symptoms but still with the increased energy.

40
Q

What are the causes/associations for bipolar disorder?

A
  • Prevalence is 1% with no gender differences
  • Fetal alcohol syndrome has a connection
  • High genetic risk (runs in families) or even just mood disorders run in families
  • Brain abnormalities (over active in many sites)
  • Low serotonin and high norepinephrine
  • Stress and trauma are a risk
41
Q

What is the definition of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders?

A

-A process where sense are distorted making it difficult to distinguish between reality and what isn’t real

42
Q

What are the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia and psychotic disorders?

A

Positive (addition of something): hallucinations, delusions, disorganized and bizarre behaviour
Negative (decrease of something): decreased energy, motivation, socialization; slowed thoughts and speech

43
Q

What are some deficits and disturbances and symptoms associated with schizophrenia and psychotic disorders?

A
  • Mood disturbances like anxiety, depression, irritability, and anger
  • Cognitive deficits in memory, attention, organization, and other executive functions
  • Changes in perceptions, auditory is the most common
  • Thinking difficulties: thoughts lack connection, can’t carry a conversation
  • Difficulty with feelings
  • Paranoia is common
  • Behaviour difficulty typically due to the hallucinations
44
Q

What are the warning signs of schizophrenia and psychotic disorders?

A
  • Gradual onset of changes in behaviour and appearance, isolation, decline in grades/functioning, poor hygiene, drug use (specifically marijuana)
  • Odd/bizzare comments
  • Distraction and sensitivity to light/sound etc.
  • Avoiding crowds
  • Low mood
45
Q

What are the causes of schizophrenia?

A
  • decreased volume in temporal lobe and hippocampus, enlargement of ventricles in brain (brain matter is shrinking), reduced neural connections in prefrontal cortex, problems in auditory system
  • Excessive pruning, specifically in visual and auditory systems
  • Dopamine hypothesis: overactivity, especially in emotional centres
  • Glutamate deficiency, which is important in learning and memory and brain development
  • Environmental factors like viral infection during pregnancy, paternal ages, being born in winter months, childhood head injury, child abuse, stressful life events, drugs
  • Cannabis use, heavy users 3-6 times more likely to develop and be hospitalized. adolescent are especially vulnerable, along with association with history of psychotic symptoms
46
Q

What is animism?

A

Nature is alive and possessed spirits. This led to the idea that bad things happen to bad people and vice versa because you are being “watched” by nature.

47
Q

What is the naturalistic view introduced by the Greeks?

A

Physical principles can explain life. 4 elements came about: water, fire, air, and earth.

48
Q

What view did hippocrates introduce early on?

A

The biological/medical view: centrality of the brain, left vs right brain with epilepsy, melancholy and phobias and depression.
Also came up with the idea of humours: substances in the body that needed to be balanced (blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm).
Holistic approach (i.e., friends, exercise, etc.)

49
Q

What did pythagorus contribute?

A

A mathematical view: math leads to reasoning and knowledge.

50
Q

What did socrates contribute?

A

He believed in humanism: reasoning and language and self-reflection are essential to our human make-up and purpose.
Believed we needed to ponder life: “socratic method”.

51
Q

What is the divide between plato and Aristotle?

A

Plato had a mathematical approach and believed everything could be explained by math and the real world was just an “approximation” (didn’t trust his own sense) and was taught by Socrates.
Aristotle was inspired by the natural world and liked seeing all the variability in the real word instead of saying its “imperfect” like Plato.

52
Q

What are some of Aristotle’s contributions?

A
  1. Believed in souls (not in a religious way) but that it is the thing that animates living things.
  2. Hierarchy of souls: vegetative soul (plant), sensitive soul(animals), and rational soul (humans).
  3. Created the scala naturae
  4. Memory and recall laws
53
Q

What occurred in the crusades?

A

Apart of the dark ages following the fall of Rome, Aristotle became rediscovered after Christianity took over. Aristotle’s work was discovered and was tried to make align with christianity.
Christianity view: put faith above reasoning, distinction between soul and body and that the body was just a distraction from our greater importances.

54
Q

What occurred during the renaissance?

A

The end of the dark ages and a more humanistic view became popular: human centred body and art.
Witch-hunts and mistreatment of the mentally ill were particularly prevalent during this time.
Scientific revolution began after in the 1600s.

55
Q

What did Locke contribute?

A

He looked at Empiricism in the 1600s, developed from Aristotle.
Believed we are born with a blank slate “tabula rasa”.
Believed we begin with simple ideas that become complex via associations.
Influenced the US declaration of independence and child rearing ideas.

56
Q

What did Descartes contribute?

A

A little bit before/during the time of Locke, but he had doubts on the real world.
Came up with “I think therefore I am” (cognito ergo sum).
Provided the idea of Dualism: our body is essentially is a machine, but our mind is non-material. He had difficulty connecting the two, as we still do.

57
Q

What did Darwin Contribute?

A 
Evolution via natural selection brought forth the comparative view: humans aren't unique we are just different from other animals. 
Introduced developmental (1877) view looked at child observations of living and growing up that Piaget later picked up.
58
Q

What is Galton’s role in Science?

A

He was interested in criminals and criminal types.
Looked at intelligence difference between people, later introducing intelligence testing.
Came up with idea of “hereditary genius” and that if Darwin is correct, eugenically smart people can be more popular in society.
Prevalent in the Holocaust.

59
Q

What are some old examples of mental illness treatments?

A
  1. Trephination: sometimes to relieve pressure from injury, or became common to treat mental illness to “release an evil spirit” (Around the time of witch trials, malleus malficarum, and connecting mentally ill people to witches).
  2. Asylums (e.g., bedlam) which were like prison hospitals that had some inhumane and incorrect ways of treatment, if any at all. Some examples include dunking in water till almost drowning, blocking eye and sound senses, spinning them around.
60
Q

Who, where, when, and how was the Moral Treatment implemented?

A

In the 1700s a more humanitarian approach to treating mentally ill came about by Willam Tuke, where he opened the York Retreat.

61
Q

What is animal magnetism and what was it used for?

A

Mesmer came up with this idea to treat minor mentally ill people, involving the rubbing of a bar on the body in a specific way. It was discredited by the French Government, but it is thought to be a preliminary idea of hypnosis.

62
Q

What is a lobotomy and who came up with the approach/procedure?

A

Egas Moniz won a Nobel prize fro the lobotomy, which consists of inserting a sharp instrument behind the eyes up in between the frontal cortex and the rest of the brain and wiggling it around, severing the connection. Mainly for severely mentally ill people to make them more “controllable”.

63
Q

What is phrenology and what did it suggest?

A

Late 1700s and it was the feeling of peoples skulls for depressions and bumps to inquire about the internal structure. Was thought to identify personality traits, and seemed accurate at the time. The idea of the different localization of brain function is correct, but the idea of an external skull relationship to internal is incorrect.

64
Q

Explain how the ideas toward brain localization changed throughout the years.

A

Began with phrenology that seemed to be on the right track, but Pierre Flourens discouraged the idea because when working with pigeon brains he thought there was a critical mass of brain matter that needed to be present for full functioning, therefore suggesting the brain working as whole.
The problem with that was is that he was working with pigeon brain. Broca reinvestigated this idea, along with Brenda Miller and her work with H.M.
This was a major contributor to the development of Neuroscience.

65
Q

What is psychophysics and who are the contributors?

A

Came about in Germany in 1700s to 1800s, firstly by Ernst Weber who created Weber’s Law Weber’s Law describes the “just noticeable difference” involved in various sense.
Helmholtz looked at the trichromatic colour theory, stating theres 3 different receptors on the retina each identifying a different colour that overall comprises our colour seeing ability.

66
Q

Who founded psychology?

A

Wihleum Wundt in 1876 opened first research lab in leipzig, thought to be the founder.
Americans believe William James should also be co-recognized because he wrote the “principles of psychology” which is still widely used, in contrary to Wundt’s work.

67
Q

What were the early schools of psychology?

A
  1. Wundt’s Volunteerism: trained people to be introspectionists.
  2. Titchner’s Structuralism: scientific version of Locke’s ideas (associations)
  3. James’ Functionalism: looked at Darwin
68
Q

What did Carl Jung Contribute?

A

Carried on with Freud’s ideas but looked at extroversion vs introversion and created archetypes across all cultures and locations. The “red book” describes his work and personal journey.

69
Q

What did alfred alder contribute?

A

Inferiority complex.

70
Q

What did Karen Horney contribute?

A

Forces pulling you away, toward, and against others: interpersonal relationships, less focus on the unconscious

71
Q

What did Anna Freud study?

A

Child psychoanalysis.

72
Q

What is the purpose of behaviourism?

A

Went against structuralism and introspection and states that psychology is introspective (Watson).
Conditioning came about in this field: Ian Pavlov, Skinner, and Watson operant and classical conditioning.

73
Q

What did Gestalt Psychology contribute?

A

A lot of visual tricks.

Conformity, obedience, and authority along with learning.

74
Q

What was the cognitive revolution?

A

It “gave us back our minds”.
-Noam Chomsky is a huge contributor for this, and largely critiqued Skinner’s work: behaviourist principles alone cannot explain the acquirement of language, we seem to have an innate ability.

75
Q

What is humanistic psychology?

A
  • The revolt against psychoanalysis and behaviourism, because both state we don’t know ourselves well and cannot study the mind. Due to the increase in individuality.
  • Belief that we have the power to control our thoughts
  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
  • Rogers is a humanist that says to get better/life a happy life people need unconditional positive regard in their life from somewhere
  • Belief that what holds people back is that they are not the person they want to be
76
Q

What is Lev’s zone of proximal development?

A

As we age or get better at something we require less supervision or help at doing it, but at first what allows us to learn it to be taught.

77
Q

What are the criteria for a panic disorder?

A

Had to have had one of more panic attack and have concern for future panic attacks.
Usually later onset.

78
Q

What is agoraphobia?

A

Fear of being somewhere and not being able to escape that place.

79
Q

What is a specific phobia disorder?

A

Pervasive intense fear of something lasting for more than 6 months. Can result in panic attacks.

80
Q

What are the physiological and biological aspects of social anxiety disorder?

A
  1. Genetic risk of having some type of anxiety disorder if a family member has one
  2. Overactive autoimmune system (has a higher baseline arousal)
  3. Low GABA levels
  4. Parent reaction plays a large roll because of modelling, as well as stressors in young life.
81
Q

What are the criteria/symptoms of OCD?

A

Need to have 1. obsessions: obsessive or pervasive thoughts or images that won’t leave and 2.compulsions that are a result of unintentionally trying to reduce the discomfort of the obsession
Compulsions must take an hour of the day cumulatively to be classified as OCD.

82
Q

What are some characteristics (biological and psychological) of PTSD?

A
  1. Re-experience of trauma via nightmares or pervasive thoughts
  2. Overstimulated amygdala (from event that persisted)
  3. Under active hippocampus (due to excess cortisol)
83
Q

What are the 3 categories of personality disorder?

A
  1. Odd/eccentric
  2. Dramatic/Emotional
  3. Anxious/fearful
84
Q

What are characteristics of borderline personality disorder?

A
  • Instability of mood, identity problems, impulsivity
  • Intense fear of abandonment usually leading to “all or nothing” relationships
  • Often engage in self destructive behaviour
85
Q

What are the characteristics of anti-social personality disorder?

A
  • Doesn’t follow societal rules and norms and doesn’t want to or see the need to
  • Manipulative, impulsive, apathetic
  • Often criminal
  • Similar to psychopaths but different in that psychopaths don’t have all symptoms and aren’t as commonly criminal
  • High genetic component and childhood environment related
86
Q

What are non-specific factors that contribute to psychotherapy?

A
  • attention
  • credibility
  • treatment expectations=optimism
  • therapeutic alliance
87
Q

What is positive psychology?

A

Came from humanism
Wants to extend past baseline and reach actualization
Mindfullness is common

88
Q

What is systemic desensitization and when is it used?

A

The gradual exposure to something that is feared in hope to overcome that fear. This is used in people with phobias and other anxiety disorders.

89
Q

What is third wave CBT?

A

CBT combines cognitive (thought focused) and behavioural approaches, along with eastern approaches.
These eastern approached include mindfulness and accepting strategies.

90
Q

What is dialectical behaviour therapy?

A

It is developed for borderline personality disorder that combines many techniques used to help individuals overcome those “hard” emotions. Involves group therapy, and a heavy dependance on the therapist.
Seems to be very effective especially in reducing suicidal rates and drop-out therapy rates.

91
Q

What are some drug treatments for depression along with their side-effects.

A
  1. Monoamine oxidases that reduce breakdown of dopamine and serotonin. Side effect: if combined with aged cheese, alcohol, wine, etc food can leave to life-threatening blood pressure.
  2. Tricyclic antidepressants block serotonin and norepinephrine re-uptake. Specifically for patients who also experience insomnia, as it is a drowsy one.
  3. SSRIs: block serotonin re-uptake, tend to have fewer side effects and also treats anxiety. But also has sexual dysfunction side-effects.
  4. SNRIs: serotonin and norepin. re-uptake inhibitors. Thought to be more safe.
92
Q

What is a negative aspect of benzodiazepines used to treat anxiety?

A

Highly addictive, because it is more immediate.

93
Q

What is a common drug used to control the mania seen in Bipolalr disorder?

A

Lithium. Has many harmful side effects.

94
Q

What is tardive dyskinesia and what is a common cause of it?

A

Involuntary movement of muscles, particularly the face. A result of antipsychotics used to treat schizophrenia that block dopamine receptors.

95
Q

What is deep brain stimulation and what is a common use for it?

A

An electrical stimulation of the brain in a specific area via probe. Common in severe depression where broadmann’s area 25 is treated.

Psychology (4 decks)

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