Memory and Learning Flashcards
1
Q
What are the two most important aspects of HM’s surgical outcomes?
A
- HM still had his LTM, but he could not make new long term memories (no encoding)
- He could still learn new tasks (i.e. procedural like riding a bike) without memory of actually learning it
2
Q
What is explicit memory?
A
The conscious recall of facts (declarative memory)
3
Q
What is implicit memory?
A
Memory outside of the conscious awareness (i.e. knowledge from previous experiences such as skills that are now automatic).
4
Q
What are the 2 components of sensory memories and how do they work?
A
There is iconic and echoic (visual and auditory) that have a relatively high capacity, but a fast decay.
5
Q
What is the typical capacity of our short term memory?
A
Between 5-9 units of letters/digits/chunks of info. It has relatively low capacity, but a longer durability (than sensory).
6
Q
What are the 3 temporary storage systems of working memory?
A
- Phonological Loop-sound and language (includes the voice inside our heads)
- Visuospatial Sketchpad-Images and spatial awareness, our ability to “picture” things in our mind
- Episodic Buffer-Provides storage for events by interacting with prev. 2 systems, as well as LTM (i.e. retrieval).
7
Q
What is the process of “chunking”?
A
A method to increase the durability of STM, by chunking together information (i.e. putting a phone # in 3 chunks rather than a long strand of numbers).
8
Q
What is the central executive and what are its 3 operating processes?
A
The central executive is a component of working memory than focuses, divides, and shifts attention. It does this via 3 ways:
- Attending to a stimulus (attention)
- Storing info from stimulus (via one of the storage systems in WM)
- Rehearsing stored info, to convert to LTM/solve a problem (rehearsal is done in one of the 3 storage systems so it can remain there, and potentially be encoded).
9
Q
What is the serial position effect and what are the 2 main effects within it?
A
The serial position effect is the tendency to have a better recall for items in a list according to their position in the list:
- Primacy effect-remembers items at the beginning of the list better (more rehearsal in mind/encode)
- Recency effect-remembers items at the end of the list better (hasn’t had time to degrade).
10
Q
What are 2 types of explicit long term memory?
A
- Semantic- general facts and knowledge
2. Episodic- recalling experiences and events
11
Q
What are 2 types of implicit long term memory?
A
- Procedural- implicit knowledge for any behaviour/physical skill that has been learned.
- Priming- can improve memory of something based on prev experience
12
Q
What is encoding and what are the 3 levels of processing within it?
A
- Encoding is the first stage of long term memory-the understanding proceses
- Differs between implicit and explicit, explicit requires effortful processing, and implicit is automatic processing
- Effortful processing has 3 types:
1. Structural processing-shallowest level, focuses on structure of word(s)
2. Phonemic- Mid-level processing, things like mnemonic devices
3. Semantic processing- deepest level of processing, connects ideas to prev experiences/feelings
13
Q
What is dual processing theory and what does it say about mnemonic devices?
A
States that verbal and visual info are processed and stored independently so mnemonic devices help ideas be encoded much better as it involves two diff processing’s.
14
Q
What is the second stage of LTM?
A
Consolidation is the second stage-a consolidated memory is resilient to distractions, interference, and decay
15
Q
What is the third stage of LTM and how is it carried out/organized?
A
Storage is the third stage, meaning stored for unlimited time amount (assuming info is being utilized). 3 ways information is stored:
- Hierarchies- pieces of info from most specific thing they have in common, to most general
- Sonemas- mental frameworks developed from experiences between different things/people/events
- Associative Networks-the linking of concepts (each concept is a “node”) and links between them are “associations” i.e. when someone things of a concept the node is activated and they are primed to think of other connected things
16
Q
What are the 2 main types of “sins of memory”
A
- Sins of omission-failure to recall
2. Sins of commission- recalling distorted or incorrect memories
17
Q
Describe Transience, the first sin of omission.
A
- Transience is the most common reason of forgetfulness, it is the common nature of memory decay (issue with the storage)
- Occurs due to weakening in the synapse because of lack of use and repetition of memory in the associative network
18
Q
Describe Absent-MIndedness
A
Is a sin of omission, and is a problem with encoding due to the lack of attention-can occur when we divide out attention, or lack of interest.
-increases with age, genetics and education also play a role
19
Q
Describe Blocking, the third sin of omission
A
- The inability to retrieve info once we have stored it: “tip of the tongue” phenomenon
- Repression is another form of this, due to traumatic experiences.
20
Q
Describe Misattribution, the first sin of commission
A
- The belief that a memory came from a different source than where it actually did, can occur because of”memory binding”
- Brings problems with the idea of accidental plagiarism: “cryptomnesia”
21
Q
Describe consistency bias, the second sin of commission.
A
-Selective recall of past events to fit with our now current beliefs (tells us about who we are now rather than then).
22
Q
Describe Persistence, the third sin of commission.
A
-The repeated recall of experiences even when we actively try to forget (often associated w strong emotions) and in extreme forms: PTSD
23
Q
Describe Suggestibility, the fourth sin of commission.
A
- Occurs when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions from another sources
- I.e. how wording of questions can change our response, or how it can create false memories
- Recovered memories can occur this way, but brings the idea if it was recovered or falsely implanted-intentionally or unintentionally
24
Q
What are variables to consider when examining eye-witnesses?
A
- Situational variables: visibility of event, duration of observation, presence of distractions
- Observer variables: intoxication, sensory deficits, attention and interest, relationship to suspect, time since event
25
How is sensory memory processed in the brain?
It first is directed to the thalamus, then to the cerebral cortices where is designated sensory area is (these regions are also activated by memories of the sensations).
26
What role does the pre-frontal cortex play in memory (particularly working memory)?
It directs our attention, contains many of the WM storage systems (or is a part of the systems).
27
What role does the hippocampus play in memory?
Plays a large role in encoding and consolidation (the repeated firing of neural impulses long term allows STM to go to LTM), and then is subsequently transported back to cortex for permanent storage.
28
What is the visuospatial sketchpad pathway?
From thalamus to pre-frontal cortex (central executive) then to temporal lobe (spatial) as well as occipital lobe (visual).
29
What is the phonological loops pathway in the brain?
From thalamus to pre-frontal cortex (central executive) then to language comp centre: wernickies region in rear/left temporal and parietal lobes.
30
Where is explicit LTM mainly stored in the brain?
Mainly in the cortex, in the region where is was processed
31
Where is implicit LTM memory stored in the brain?
Stored in subcortical structures, such as the striatum (basal ganglia), amygdala, and the cerebellum.
-Cerebellum involved in movement (i.e. procedural like instruments) striatum also involved in procedural (skills and habits)
32
Where does priming occur in the brain?
Mainly in the cortex as it involves associative networks between many ideas (explicit).
33
Explain emotional memories and the amygdala's role.
- Emotional memories (happy, sad, fearful, etc.) are associated and facilitated by the amygdala.
- Emotional events activate genes that make proteins that strengthen synaptic connections so that these memories "stick"
- The amygdala facilitates which memories are of emotional significance, and so it plays a role in encoding.
34
What is anterograde amnesia?
Cannot convert stm to ltm after the injury.
35
What is retrograde amnesia?
Cannot recall events before the injury (may be only a period of time i.e. 1 year before, 5 years before, 2 months before, 30 mins before, etc.).
36
Explain alzheimers disease.
An organic neurodegenerative brain disease that is associated with memory loss.
- Can affect as early as the 40s, but typically not until the 60s
- It is progressive resulting in full memory loss
- Involves transience and absent mindedness
- associated with abnormal accumulation of beta-amyloid protein (toxic to neurons with acetylcholine neurotramsitter).
37
How does marijuana affect memory?
Weed is associated with mild forms of memory loss: it impairs encoding (recall is unaffected during intoxication).
38
Explain the idea of Hebb's Law.
- Neurons that fire together, wire together (based on theory no experimental evidence/testing)
- When repeated fire of 1 neuron to next theres a permanent change in 1 or both of the neurons hat strengthens their synaptic connections: known as long-term potentiation.
- Kandel carried out an experiment for this idea (sea slugs) and also discovered when there is repeated firing between neurons, a gene is activated that created CREB which strengthens synaptic connection (biological explanation of the above point).
39
What is habitualism?
It is the simplest form of learning: detecting a change in your environment (orientating response) but the the habituation to that stimulus is if becomes constant.
40
What is association in terms of learning?
When 2 pieces of info in the same environment are repeatedly linked so that we then connect them in our minds. Conditioning is a type of this learning style.
41
What are the 2 types of conditioning in terms of learning?
1. Classical: learning relationships between stimuli
| 2. Operant: learn relationship between stimuli through consequences
42
Briefly explain the process of classical conditioning?
When an unconditioned stimulus (US) produced and unconditioned response (UR) until a conditioned stimulus (CS) began producing the UR and it is now a CR to a CS from the anticipation of the US.
43
What is stimulus generalization?
An extension of the association between the US and the CS to include a wide array of CS that are similar to the initial ones.
44
What are reinforcers when it comes to operant conditioning? What are the 2 kinds?
Reinforcers are consequences to a behaviour that increase the likelihood of that behaviour.
1. Primary reinforcers- innate, unlearned reinforcers that satisfy biological needs
2. Secondary Reinforcers- learn via association (i.e. money, sex, etc.)
45
What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?
Positive presents a stimulus after a behaviour to promote it, negative removes a stimulus after to promote
46
Describe punishment in contrast to reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement is different from punishment, which can also be positive or negative. it is the addition or removal of a stimulus to decrease a behaviour.
47
Explain why intermittent reinforcement often produces a stronger behavioural response than continuous reinforcement.
Providing the stimulus only most of the time prevents a repeatable pattern from being learned, rather this way the subject will keep preforming behaviour until there is a stimulus.
48
What is the biological constraint theory?
Some behaviours are more likely to be learned than others based on instinctive drift.
49
What is imprinting in terms of learning?
A type of learning not dependant on reward/reinforcement, and it is the rapid and innate learning of characteristics of a caregiver shortly after birth (certain sensitivity periods in which this can happen).
50
What is latent learning? What is one psychologist that worked with this idea (rats)?
Learning occurring in the absence of reinforcement but not being demonstrated as having been learnt until reinforcement begins.
Edward Tolman used rats in a maze to investigate this idea.
51
Who coined the social learning theory? What are the 2 components of it?
Albert Bandura proposed we learn by doing and seeing:
1. Enactive learning (learning by doing)
2. Inactive learning (learning by observing)
52
What are two example (types) exhibited as "social learning"
1. Modelling (learning and imitating others)
| 2. Imprinting (learning instinctive things from a caregiver shortly after birth)
53
What is one of the main roles that the temporal lobe plays in memory?
Based on brain damage studies (such as HM) it can be concluded that the temporal lobe is critical for the ability to encode explicit, episodic memories for longterm.
54
Describe HM's surgery and his surgeon.
- HM has developed severe epileptic sezuires due to a brain injury when he was younger.
- Doctors removed both sides of his temporal lobes (resulting in removal of several other brain structures such as the hippocampus) to stop the seizures, which worked
- Brenda Milner spent her life studying him and his brain, and Dr. Scoville conducted his surgery
55
Who conducted the experimental study of the effects of weed on memory? Whose ideas was it based on?
Darley et all composed a study based on Atkinson and Shriffin's theory of the modal model of episodic memory (3 stage memory model), immediate and delayed recall, and the serial position curves.
56
What level of marijuana use can affect encoding?
Acute use can effect encoding.
57
What types of memory does marijuana not affect?
It has not shown to affect short term memory and long term memory independently , only the conversion of stm to ltm.
58
How does weed effect the recall of events?
The immediate recall of events if affected.
59
Who coined the levels of processing model and recall
Craik, Lockhart, and others
60
What is conditioned taste aversion?
The learned avoidance of a particular taste of food due to the linked of a CS with an US (unpleasant).
61
Briefly describe Garcia's experiment with taste aversion, and state which assumptions of classical conditioning it undermined.
- Garcia paired saccharine water consumption for rats with low doses of radiation to test if a stimulus could cause taste aversion (nausea as a US). He also wanted to test how long the taste aversion would last after the CS was stopped (the radiation).
- He found that contrary to classical conditioning which states that any two stimuli can be paired, nausea could only be conditioned through a taste (CS the water) but not as easily as from sound as they are not related.
62
Briefly explain the Bobo doll experiment's findings and which psychologist studied this.
Albert Bandura, who coined inactive and enactive learning, investigated modelling in children who viewed aggressive behaviours exhibited by adults between each other and with a doll.
- It found that children who were exposed to the video of the men being violent with the doll were then more likely to act violent toward the doll afterward
- The second part of the experiment had an extra group that involved reinforcement and punishment: one punished the man after he was violent, the other then man was rewarded. The children who saw the man be rewarded showed significantly more aggressive behaviour toward the doll compared to the ones who saw the punished man.
63
What effects would a damaged amygdala have on learning?
Can no longer make associations of stimuli with emotional responses (cannot be conditioned to fear something, naturally or experimentally).
64
What happens when dopamine is decreased in the nucleus accumbens?
The nucleus accumbens is involved in the reward pathway, along with the amygdala and the ventral tegmental area. Decreasing dopamine in this area would decrease individuals efforts to seek pleasure (sex, food, money).
65
Explain the difference between radical methodological studies.
Radical: study of observables (stimuli and responses), not study of mental processes
Methodological: technologically advanced through expanded observables in the brain
66
Briefly explain Levy's experiment with rats and heroin.
Rats were conditioned to associated one side of a room (patterned) with the high from heroin, and so when not administered heroin they would gravitate toward that side of the room.
