Memory-mini-topics.

Question 1

Research on encoding

Answer 1

Baddeley study found short term memory encoded acoustically, LTM memory encoded semantically

Question 2

Evaluate research on encoding

Answer 2

Artificial stimuli Baddeley word lists had no personal significance.

Question 3

Memory capacity study

Answer 3

Miller, 7+/-2 span, putting items together extends STM capacity

Question 4

Evaluate Memory capacity findings

Answer 4

Lacking validity could be extraneous variables such as distractions

Cowan, estimated STM as about four chunks.

Question 5

Research on STM duration

Answer 5

Peterson and Peterson, STM lasts up to 18 seconds without rehearsal.

Question 6

Research on LTM duration

Answer 6

Bahrick et al recognition of faces 90% after 15 years, recall 60%.

Recognition dropped to 70% after 48 years.

Question 7

What is multi story memory model?

Answer 7

A representation of memory with three stores, sensory register, short-term memory, long term memory.

Question 8

Sensory register as part of the MSM

Answer 8

Iconic and echoic stores with very brief duration, high capacity

Transfer to short term memory by attention.

Question 9

Short-term memory as part of MSM

Answer 9

Limited capacity and duration store, mainly acoustically coded.

Transfer to LTM by rehearsal.

Question 10

Long term memory as part of MSM

Answer 10

Unlimited capacity and duration, permanent store. Mainly semantic.

Created through maintenance rehearsal.

Question 11

Evidence supporting MSM

Answer 11

Supporting research evidence, many studies into coding capacity and duration demonstrate differences between STM and LTM.

Question 12

Evidence against MSM

Answer 12

There is more than one type of STM, studies of amnesia e.g. KF show different STMs for visual and auditory material.

There is more than one type of rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal necessary for transfer to LTM, not maintenance rehearsal.

More than one type of LTM.

Question 13

Types of Long term memory

Answer 13

Episodic memory

Semantic memory

Procedural memory

Question 14

Episodic memory

Answer 14

Memory for events in our lives a ‘diary’

Question 15

Semantic memory

Answer 15

Memory for knowledge of the world, like an encyclopaedia and dictionary. Includes language.

Question 16

Procedural memory

Answer 16

Memory for automatic and often skilled behaviours.

Question 17

Evidence supporting different types of long term memory?

Answer 17

Clinical evidence, Clive Wearing and HM had damaged episodic memories but semantic and procedural memories were fine.

Neuroimaging evidence, episodic and procedural memories recalled from different parts of the prefrontal cortex.

There has been real world applications such as training programme’s for adults with mild cognitive impairments.

Question 18

Working memory model

Answer 18

Baddeley and Hitch suggested,
STM as being composed of various separate but inter-related stores where different types of operations are performed on incoming information by different parts of STM before being passed onto the LTM or forgotten.

Question 19

Working memory model STM composed of

Answer 19

Central executive

Phonological loop

Visuospatial sketchpad

Episodic buffer.

Question 20

Central executive

Answer 20

Co-ordinates slave systems and allocates resources, very limited storage.

Question 21

Phonological loop

Answer 21

Deals with auditory information and has a limited capacity.

Sub-divided into phonological store and articulatory process.

Question 22

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 22

Inner eye, holds visual and spatial information.

Question 23

Episodic buffer

Answer 23

Temporary storage area which combines and brings together information received from the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad and the central executive.

Question 24

Evidence supporting working memory model

Answer 24

Clinical evidence study, KF had poor auditory memory but good visual memory. Damaged phonological loop but visual-spatial sketchpad fine.

Baddeley et al, dual task performance difficult to do two visual tasks at same time, but one visual and one verbal is ok.

Question 25

Evidence against working memory model.

Answer 25

Lack of validity over central executive, it’s not fully explained and most likely has different components.

Question 26

Two explanations for forgetting

Answer 26

Interference

Retrieval failure

Question 27

Interference

Answer 27

Information heard either before or after another piece of information causing poorer recall of this information.

Question 28

Proactive interference

Answer 28

Old memories disrupt new ones.

Question 29

Retroactive interference

Answer 29

New memories disrupt old ones.

Question 30

Interference explanation for forgetting study

Answer 30

McGeoch and McDonald found that similarity of information causes increased interference and forgetting.

Question 31

Retrieval failure

Answer 31

Retrieval failure theory argues that rather than forgetting information we sometimes simply have a problem locating and retrieving it from out LTM due to absent of cues.

Question 32

Retrieval failure 3 features

Answer 32

Encoding specificity principle

Context-Dependent forgetting

State-depedent forgetting

Question 33

Encoding specificity principle

Answer 33

Tulving: cues most effective if present at coding and at retrieval.

Question 34

Context-depedent forgetting

Answer 34

Godden and Baddeley deep-sea divers recall better when external contexts matched.

Question 35

State dependent forgetting

Answer 35

Carter and Cassday found that recall was better when internals states matched.

Question 36

Evidence supporting retrieval failure explanation for forgetting.

Answer 36

Wide range of supporting evidence, Eysnck claims retrieval failure is most important reason for lTM forgetting.

Question 37

Evidence against retrieval failure explanation for forgetting

Answer 37

No forgetting unless contexts are very different e.g. on land versus underwater.

Absence of cues affects recall but not recognition.

Question 38

Factors affecting Eyewitness testimony

Answer 38

Misleading information/leading questions

Anxiety

Question 39

Misleading information affecting Eyewitness testimony accuracy?

Answer 39

Leading questions

Post event discussion

Question 40

Leading questions

Answer 40

A question which suggests to the witness what answer is desired or leads them to desired answer.

Question 41

Post event-discussion

Answer 41

The memory of an event may also be altered by discussion memories of that event with others

Question 42

Evidence supporting misleading information affecting eyewitness testimony

Answer 42

Useful real-life applications could help prevent miscarriages of justice and change police interviewing.

Question 43

Evidence against misleading information affecting eyewitness testimony

Answer 43

Tasks are artificial, watching film clips ignores the stress and anxiety associated with a real accident or crime.

Individual differences, older people may be less accurate because of own-age bias.

Question 44

Anxiety

Answer 44

A negative emotional state of anticipation associated with high levels of physiological and psychological arousal.

Question 45

Anxiety negative effect on eyewitness testimony

Answer 45

Anxiety has a negative effect on recall, Johnson and Scott high-anxiety knife condition led to less good recall. Tunnel theory of memory.

Question 46

Anxiety positive effect on eyewitness testimony

Answer 46

Yuille and Cuthsall did a study on a high anxiety situation found that a higher anxiety situation with a shooter was associated with better recall when witnessing real crime.

Question 47

Explanation of contractionary findings on eyewitness testimony

Answer 47

Yerkes-Dodson law suggests both low and high anxiety lead to poor recall Deffenbatcher.

Question 48

How can you improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?

Answer 48

Cognitive interview

Question 49

Cognitive interview

Answer 49

4 Stages:

Report everything, including even unimportant details.

Reinstate the context, picture the scene and recall how you felt.

Reverse the order, recall the end and work backwards disrupts expectations.

Change perspective, put yourself in the shoes of someone else present, disrupts schema.

Question 50

Enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 50

Adds social dynamics, e.g. establishing eye contact to the cognitive interview.

Question 51

Evidence supporting cognitive interview improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Answer 51

Geiselman et al 85, participants were shown a video of a simulated crime and then tested with a cognitive interview, a standard police interview, or an interview under the influence of hypnosis, cognitive interview was the most successful of the three.

Question 52

Evidence against cognitive interview improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Answer 52

Not suitable for children under the age of 6.

Although it generates more information, some research suggests it generates more incorrect information.

Unpopular with some police as it takes police a long time to complain, and it is expensive to train staff.