Memory-mini-topics. Flashcards
Research on encoding
Baddeley study found short term memory encoded acoustically, LTM memory encoded semantically
Evaluate research on encoding
Artificial stimuli Baddeley word lists had no personal significance.
Memory capacity study
Miller, 7+/-2 span, putting items together extends STM capacity
Evaluate Memory capacity findings
Lacking validity could be extraneous variables such as distractions
Cowan, estimated STM as about four chunks.
Research on STM duration
Peterson and Peterson, STM lasts up to 18 seconds without rehearsal.
Research on LTM duration
Bahrick et al recognition of faces 90% after 15 years, recall 60%.
Recognition dropped to 70% after 48 years.
What is multi story memory model?
A representation of memory with three stores, sensory register, short-term memory, long term memory.
Sensory register as part of the MSM
Iconic and echoic stores with very brief duration, high capacity
Transfer to short term memory by attention.
Short-term memory as part of MSM
Limited capacity and duration store, mainly acoustically coded.
Transfer to LTM by rehearsal.
Long term memory as part of MSM
Unlimited capacity and duration, permanent store. Mainly semantic.
Created through maintenance rehearsal.
Evidence supporting MSM
Supporting research evidence, many studies into coding capacity and duration demonstrate differences between STM and LTM.
Evidence against MSM
There is more than one type of STM, studies of amnesia e.g. KF show different STMs for visual and auditory material.
There is more than one type of rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal necessary for transfer to LTM, not maintenance rehearsal.
More than one type of LTM.
Types of Long term memory
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory
Episodic memory
Memory for events in our lives a ‘diary’
Semantic memory
Memory for knowledge of the world, like an encyclopaedia and dictionary. Includes language.
Procedural memory
Memory for automatic and often skilled behaviours.
Evidence supporting different types of long term memory?
Clinical evidence, Clive Wearing and HM had damaged episodic memories but semantic and procedural memories were fine.
Neuroimaging evidence, episodic and procedural memories recalled from different parts of the prefrontal cortex.
There has been real world applications such as training programme’s for adults with mild cognitive impairments.
Working memory model
Baddeley and Hitch suggested,
STM as being composed of various separate but inter-related stores where different types of operations are performed on incoming information by different parts of STM before being passed onto the LTM or forgotten.
Working memory model STM composed of
Central executive
Phonological loop
Visuospatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer.
Central executive
Co-ordinates slave systems and allocates resources, very limited storage.
Phonological loop
Deals with auditory information and has a limited capacity.
Sub-divided into phonological store and articulatory process.
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Inner eye, holds visual and spatial information.
Episodic buffer
Temporary storage area which combines and brings together information received from the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad and the central executive.
Evidence supporting working memory model
Clinical evidence study, KF had poor auditory memory but good visual memory. Damaged phonological loop but visual-spatial sketchpad fine.
Baddeley et al, dual task performance difficult to do two visual tasks at same time, but one visual and one verbal is ok.
Evidence against working memory model.
Lack of validity over central executive, it’s not fully explained and most likely has different components.
Two explanations for forgetting
Interference
Retrieval failure
Interference
Information heard either before or after another piece of information causing poorer recall of this information.
Proactive interference
Old memories disrupt new ones.
Retroactive interference
New memories disrupt old ones.
Interference explanation for forgetting study
McGeoch and McDonald found that similarity of information causes increased interference and forgetting.
Retrieval failure
Retrieval failure theory argues that rather than forgetting information we sometimes simply have a problem locating and retrieving it from out LTM due to absent of cues.
Retrieval failure 3 features
Encoding specificity principle
Context-Dependent forgetting
State-depedent forgetting
Encoding specificity principle
Tulving: cues most effective if present at coding and at retrieval.
Context-depedent forgetting
Godden and Baddeley deep-sea divers recall better when external contexts matched.
State dependent forgetting
Carter and Cassday found that recall was better when internals states matched.
Evidence supporting retrieval failure explanation for forgetting.
Wide range of supporting evidence, Eysnck claims retrieval failure is most important reason for lTM forgetting.
Evidence against retrieval failure explanation for forgetting
No forgetting unless contexts are very different e.g. on land versus underwater.
Absence of cues affects recall but not recognition.
Factors affecting Eyewitness testimony
Misleading information/leading questions
Anxiety
Misleading information affecting Eyewitness testimony accuracy?
Leading questions
Post event discussion
Leading questions
A question which suggests to the witness what answer is desired or leads them to desired answer.
Post event-discussion
The memory of an event may also be altered by discussion memories of that event with others
Evidence supporting misleading information affecting eyewitness testimony
Useful real-life applications could help prevent miscarriages of justice and change police interviewing.
Evidence against misleading information affecting eyewitness testimony
Tasks are artificial, watching film clips ignores the stress and anxiety associated with a real accident or crime.
Individual differences, older people may be less accurate because of own-age bias.
Anxiety
A negative emotional state of anticipation associated with high levels of physiological and psychological arousal.
Anxiety negative effect on eyewitness testimony
Anxiety has a negative effect on recall, Johnson and Scott high-anxiety knife condition led to less good recall. Tunnel theory of memory.
Anxiety positive effect on eyewitness testimony
Yuille and Cuthsall did a study on a high anxiety situation found that a higher anxiety situation with a shooter was associated with better recall when witnessing real crime.
Explanation of contractionary findings on eyewitness testimony
Yerkes-Dodson law suggests both low and high anxiety lead to poor recall Deffenbatcher.
How can you improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
Cognitive interview
Cognitive interview
4 Stages:
Report everything, including even unimportant details.
Reinstate the context, picture the scene and recall how you felt.
Reverse the order, recall the end and work backwards disrupts expectations.
Change perspective, put yourself in the shoes of someone else present, disrupts schema.
Enhanced cognitive interview
Adds social dynamics, e.g. establishing eye contact to the cognitive interview.
Evidence supporting cognitive interview improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
Geiselman et al 85, participants were shown a video of a simulated crime and then tested with a cognitive interview, a standard police interview, or an interview under the influence of hypnosis, cognitive interview was the most successful of the three.
Evidence against cognitive interview improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
Not suitable for children under the age of 6.
Although it generates more information, some research suggests it generates more incorrect information.
Unpopular with some police as it takes police a long time to complain, and it is expensive to train staff.
