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Psychology Paper 1 > Memory Knowledge > Flashcards

Memory Knowledge Flashcards

1
Q

What are the types of coding used in the Sensory Register?

A

Iconic, Echoic, Haptic, Gustatory, Olfactory

These represent different sensory modalities for information storage.

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2
Q

What is the capacity of the Sensory Register?

A

High

The capacity is large due to detailed information from the senses.

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3
Q

What is the duration of the Sensory Register?

A

Less than half a second

Different types of information decay at different rates.

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4
Q

What is the coding method for Short-Term Memory (STM)?

A

Acoustic

STM primarily uses sound-based coding.

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5
Q

What is the typical capacity range of STM?

A

7 +/- 2

This is often referred to as Miller’s Law.

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6
Q

What is the duration of Short-Term Memory?

A

18-30 seconds

STM duration is limited unless information is rehearsed.

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7
Q

What did Crowder (1993) find regarding the duration of the iconic store?

A

Information is retained for a few milliseconds

Supports the idea of different durations for sensory stores.

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8
Q

What was the main finding of Sperling’s (1960) experiment?

A

Recall of letters in the indicated row was high

Suggests that all information was originally present in the Sensory Register.

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9
Q

In Triesman’s (1964) study, what was found about the echoic store duration?

A

Limited duration of two seconds

Participants noticed identical auditory messages only if the delay was two seconds or less.

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10
Q

What were the four sets of word lists used in Baddeley’s (1966) study?

A
  • Acoustically similar
  • Acoustically dissimilar
  • Semantically similar
  • Semantically dissimilar

These were used to assess coding in STM and LTM.

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11
Q

What did Baddeley’s findings suggest about STM coding?

A

STM is acoustically coded

Participants confused similar-sounding words.

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12
Q

What did Baddeley’s findings suggest about LTM coding?

A

LTM is semantically coded

Participants confused words with similar meanings after a delay.

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13
Q

What was the mean digit span found by Jacobs (1887)?

A

9.3 items

This suggests the capacity of STM.

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14
Q

What did Miller (1956) suggest regarding chunking in STM?

A

Chunking can increase the capacity of STM

Used the term ‘the magical number 7’.

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15
Q

What was the aim of Peterson and Peterson’s (1956) study?

A

To research the duration of STM

They used trigrams and a retention interval.

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16
Q

What was concluded about the duration of STM in Peterson and Peterson’s (1956) study?

A

STM lasts about 18 seconds

Very few people correctly recalled the trigram after this duration.

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17
Q

What is the believed passage of information to Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

A

All information in LTM is believed to have passed through the SR and STM.

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18
Q

How does the strength of memories in LTM vary?

A

Some can be retrieved easily (strong), while weaker memories require more prompting.

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19
Q

What was the aim of Wagenaar’s (1986) research?

A

To see if the capacity of LTM could be measured.

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20
Q

What did Wagenaar create for his study?

A

A diary of 2,400 events over 6 years.

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21
Q

What were Wagenaar’s findings regarding LTM capacity?

A

He could recall and describe most of the events in the diary, indicating LTM capacity is extremely large.

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22
Q

What was the aim of Bahrick’s (1975) research?

A

To research the duration of LTM.

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23
Q

What methods did Bahrick use to test recall?

A

Photo recognition and free recall.

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24
Q

What were Bahrick’s findings regarding recall accuracy after 15 years?

A

90% accuracy for photo recognition and 60% accuracy for free recall.

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25
What did Bahrick conclude about LTM duration?
LTM lasts for a very long time, especially for faces.
26
What does the Multi-Store Model (MSM) describe?
A flow between three permanent storage systems of memory: SR, STM, and LTM.
27
What is the duration of information stored in the Sensory Register (SR)?
Approximately half a second.
28
What types of stores are included in the Sensory Register (SR)?
* Iconic store (visual information) * Echoic store (auditory information) * Haptic store (touch information) * Olfactory store (smells) * Gustatory store (taste information)
29
What is the primary encoding method for information in STM?
Acoustically, as a sound.
30
What is the estimated duration of STM?
Approximately 18-30 seconds.
31
What is the estimated capacity of STM?
5 to 9 items.
32
What is 'chunking' in relation to STM?
Converting a string of items into larger 'chunks' to increase capacity.
33
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Repeating material to retain information in STM.
34
How is information primarily coded in LTM?
Semantically, with reference to meaning.
35
What is the Primacy Effect?
The tendency to recall items presented at the beginning of a list.
36
What is the Recency Effect?
The tendency to recall items presented at the end of a list.
37
What did Murdock's research demonstrate about recall?
Words at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list are recalled more often.
38
What happened to H.M. after his brain surgery?
He could not form new LTM but his STM remained unaffected.
39
What did the H.M. case study support?
The idea that LTM and STM are separate stores.
40
What was the main finding of K.F.'s case study?
K.F.'s STM for digits was poor, but LTM was unaffected, suggesting separate memory stores.
41
What are the two types of long-term memory?
* Declarative (explicit) * Procedural (implicit)
42
What is episodic memory?
A type of declarative memory that refers to personal events and experiences.
43
What is semantic memory?
A type of declarative memory that involves facts and meanings without time stamps.
44
What is procedural memory?
Implicit knowledge of tasks that do not require conscious recall.
45
What did Baddeley and Hitch (1974) develop?
The Working Memory Model (WMM).
46
What does the Central Executive (CE) do?
Acts as a filter and manages attention and information from slave stores.
47
What is the Phonological Loop (PL)?
A component that temporarily retains language-based information in auditory form.
48
What does the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (VSS) do?
Temporarily retains visual and spatial information.
49
What is the Episodic Buffer (EB)?
Facilitates communication between the WMM and LTM, integrating information.
50
What is proactive interference?
Old information prevents the recall of newer information.
51
What is retroactive interference?
Recent information interferes with the recall of older information.
52
What did McGeoch and McDonald (1931) investigate?
Whether the similarity of memories influences recall.
53
What was one of the conditions in McGeoch and McDonald's experiment?
Group 1 = synonyms (words meaning the same as the original list).
54
What was the aim of McGeoch and McDonald's (1931) study?
To investigate whether the similarity of memories influences recall.
55
What procedure did McGeoch and McDonald use in their study?
Participants learned a list of 10 words and then another list under 6 different conditions.
56
What were the 6 different conditions in McGeoch and McDonald's study?
* Group 1 = synonyms * Group 2 = antonyms * Group 3 = unrelated words * Group 4 = non-sense syllables * Group 5 = 3-digit numbers * Group 6 = no new list
57
What were the findings of McGeoch and McDonald's study regarding recall?
Recall of the original list was dependent on the nature of the second list; synonyms produced the worst recall.
58
What conclusion did McGeoch and McDonald draw from their study?
Interference is strongest when the memories are similar.
59
What theory explains forgetting in long-term memory according to the document?
Forgetting is due to a lack of access to a memory, rather than the availability of a memory.
60
What is the encoding specificity principle (ESP)?
Failing to access the same internal and external cues at recall leads to forgetting.
61
What is context-dependent forgetting?
Forgetting occurs when the external environment at recall differs from when the information was learned.
62
What was the aim of Godden and Baddeley's (1975) study?
To investigate context-dependent forgetting.
63
What were the conditions in Godden and Baddeley's study?
* Condition 1: Learning and recall on land * Condition 2: Learning on land, recall underwater * Condition 3: Learning underwater, recall on land * Condition 4: Learning and recall underwater
64
What did Godden and Baddeley find regarding recall?
Recall was 40% lower in mismatched conditions (conditions 2 and 3).
65
What supports context-dependent forgetting according to Abernathy (1940)?
Participants recalled material better when tested by a familiar teacher in a familiar room.
66
What is state-dependent forgetting?
Forgetting occurs when an individual's internal environment differs at recall from when the information was learned.
67
What was the aim of Carter and Cassaday's (1998) study?
To investigate state-dependent forgetting.
68
What were the conditions in Carter and Cassaday's study?
* Condition 1: Learning and recall on drug * Condition 2: Learning on drug, recall not on drug * Condition 3: Learning not on drug, recall on drug * Condition 4: Learning and recall not on drug
69
What did Carter and Cassaday find regarding recall?
Performance was significantly worse when there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall.
70
What is misleading information in the context of eyewitness testimony (EWT)?
Incorrect information that leads an individual to give a particular response.
71
What are the two types of misleading information?
* Leading questions * Post-event discussion
72
What are leading questions?
Questions that suggest a desired answer.
73
What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer's (1974) experiment?
To assess the extent to which participants' speed estimates are influenced by leading questions.
74
What were the findings of Loftus and Palmer's first experiment?
Estimated speed was impacted by the verb used in the question.
75
What was the critical question in Loftus and Palmer's second experiment?
'Did you see any broken glass?'
76
What did Loftus and Palmer conclude regarding misleading questions?
Misleading information can impact memory.
77
What are the two explanations of how leading questions impact EWT?
* Response bias * Substitution
78
What is post-event discussion?
Misleading information added to a memory after the event has occurred.
79
What was the aim of Gabbert et al.'s (2003) study?
To investigate the effect of post-event discussion on the accuracy of EWT.
80
What were Gabbert et al.'s findings regarding co-witnesses?
71% of co-witnesses recalled information they had not seen.
81
What is the weapon focus effect?
Anxiety from witnessing a weapon focuses attention away from potential perpetrators.
82
What was the aim of Johnson and Scott's (1976) study?
To see whether the presence of a weapon impacts the accuracy of EWT.
83
What were the two conditions in Johnson and Scott's study?
* No-weapon condition: target had a pen * Weapon condition: target had a bloodied letter opener
84
What did Johnson and Scott find regarding identification accuracy?
Participants identified the target 49% of the time with the pen and 33% with the weapon.
85
What did Yuille and Cutshall (1986) find regarding anxiety and EWT?
Witnesses with higher stress levels were more accurate in their accounts.
86
What does the inverted-U hypothesis suggest?
The relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted-U.
87
What is the standard police interview methodology criticized for?
Prompting jumps between memory modalities and false memories due to leading questions.
88
What is the Cognitive Interview (CI)?
A new questioning methodology integrating effective memory recall techniques.
89
What are the four techniques involved in the Cognitive Interview?
* Report everything * Reinstate the context * Change perspective * Change the order of recall
90
What should witnesses include in their accounts?
Every single detail of the event, even if it seems irrelevant ## Footnote Seemingly trivial details may highlight something important or trigger other memories.
91
What does reinstating the context involve?
Returning to the original crime scene in their mind and imagining the environment and emotions ## Footnote This links to context- and state-dependent forgetting.
92
How does reinstating physical and mental context aid recall?
It acts as cues to trigger recall.
93
What is the purpose of recalling events in reverse order?
To verify accuracy and prevent reporting expectations instead of actual events ## Footnote It also reveals dishonesty as it is more difficult to produce an untruthful account in reverse order.
94
How does changing perspective enhance recall?
It promotes a more holistic view of the event and disrupts the effect of expectations and schema on recall.
95
Who developed the Enhanced Cognitive Interview (ECI)?
Fisher et al., (1987)
96
What are some key elements of the Enhanced Cognitive Interview?
Establishing eye contact, reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly, and asking open-ended questions.
97
What does the Modified Cognitive Interview (MCI) remove for use with children?
The 'change perspective' component ## Footnote Children are seen as being too young to empathise with others.

Psychology Paper 1 (8 decks)

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