Memory And Learning

Question 1

Explain perception and state which law relates the strength of a stimulus to how intensely it is perceived

Explain this definition of perception -It is an active process that improves with learning and maturation, and is intrinsically linked with the attribution of meaning.

Visual and auditory perception have been studied the most.true or false

Answer 1

Perception is the conscious awareness and interpretation of sensory information.
•It is an active process that improves with learning and maturation, and is intrinsically linked with the attribution of meaning.
•The Weber-Fechner law relates the strength of a stimulus to how intensely it is perceived.
•

It means sometimes there are sounds you hear but can’t perceive or for something to make sense you should have learned it sometime ago so you can attribute meaning to it or so you can perceive

Question 2

Give an example that explains the Weber-Fechner law

Answer 2

If you have a bright flower and a dull one it’s likely you’ll see the brightly colored one or your attention will be on it more compared to the dull one

Question 3

Define Gestalt’s theory or principle

Answer 3

Perception of the whole differs from that of its individual components (‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’).
•This theory proposes that people make sense of the world around them by taking separate and distinct elements and combining them into a unified whole.

Question 4

Under visual phenomena define Gestalts principles

Answer 4

Continuity:
Closure
–Proximity
Similarity
Simplicity,pragnanz,good figure
–Common Region:

Question 5

Explain continuity and closure under Gestalts principles with examples

Answer 5

Law of Continuity-interrupted line perceived as continuous (e.g. table edge partially obscured behind a chair,if you see a car ,for a normal person you’re drawn to the whole car not to the tyre alone or a window alone
Law of Closure: incomplete outline perceived as whole (e.g. biscuits on a plate are perceived as intact despite overlapping and obscuring each other,using broken Lines to draw a rectangle, you don’t see broken lines but you’ll see the rectangle as a whole )

Question 6

Explain proximity and similarity and simplicity under Gestalts principles with examples

Answer 6

Proximity-juxtaposed items grouped together (e.g. || || || is perceived as three pairs of lines rather than six individual lines)
Single items are grouped together and perceived as a group not single items anymore
–Similarity: grouping of items that look alike
–Simplicity/Pragnanz/Good Figure: preference given to most basic percept possible based on the available information.
For example seeing the symbols used in olympics you would call them different circles joined together instead of saying it’s the symbols used in olympics if you don’t know it is the symbols used in olympics. You’ll give the basic percept possible.

Question 7

Define figure ground differentiation and give an example

Answer 7

This refers to the tendency of the visual system to simplify a scene into the main object that one is looking at (the figure) and everything else that forms the background (the ground).
•Figure-ground perception describes one of the most fundamental ways that we simplify a visual scene.

Example-seeing a picture w a clock on the wall you’d call the clock the figure and the wall the background

Question 8

Define law of common region under Gestalts laws

Answer 8

when elements are located in the same closed region, we perceive them as belonging to the same group.
Example seeing two big circles with different objects in each circle you’d perceive the items in one circle as belonging to the group in that circle while seeing the other items in the other circle as belonging to the group in the other circle

Question 9

Name four ways people differentiate between figure and ground and give examples each

Answer 9

Blurriness: objects in the foreground tend to be crisp and distinct while those in the background are blurry or hazy. Example -the picture example
–Contrast: The high contrast between objects can lead to the perception of figure and ground. Example-if a red ball is in a white room the eye reads the red ball as the figure and the white room as the background
–Size: Images that appear to be larger will be perceived as closer and part of the figure while those that are smaller will seem further away and part of the background.
–Separation: An object isolated from everything else in a visual scene is more likely to be seen as a figure versus background.example-in the desert and there’s a cactus seen in the desert the cactus is seen as the figure and the desert the background cuz the cactus is isolated from everything

Question 10

Define object constancy and state the four kinds of it

Answer 10

Ability to perceive an object as being the same despite varying viewing conditions.
Several kinds:
–Colour/lightness constancy: object colour and lightness remain constant irrespective of lighting
–Size constancy: object size perceived as constant irrespective of distance
–Shape constancy: object shape perceived as constant irrespective of perspective (angle)
–Location constancy: object position perceived as constant irrespective of viewer’s motion.

Question 11

Define the perceptual set and name and give examples of the three things it includes

Answer 11

•The tendency to perceive on the basis of expectation. Or tendency to see an object based on what you expect to see.It includes:
–a reduction in threshold for expected percepts, and vice versa. Example-if you see a black shadow w four legs passing by fast you’ll say it’s a cat and you won’t look at other features to see if it’s truly a cat
–distortion/modification of ambiguous percepts in order to fit with expectation.example-if the shadow has longer ears than normal but has the four legs you’ll ignore the fact that it has longer ears and still say it’s a cat
–Influencing factors: personality, experience, emotion. It also depends on you and what you’ve experienced to perceive an object

Question 12

What does development of visual perception depend on

Answer 12

Development of visual perception is dependent on interaction with the environment (constitutional–environmental interaction):

Question 13

Define depth of perception and state five things the Brain uses for it

Answer 13

To create 3D perception from 2D retinal images the brain relies on several cues:
–Monocular accommodation
–Binocular vision and convergence
–Object interposition
–Object texture gradient
–Linear and aerial perspectives
–Relative size and brightness
–Elevation and motion parallax.

Question 14

At birth ,1 month,2 months,4months,6months how developed is visual perception

Answer 14

Birth:
–Can discriminate levels of brightness
–Able to fix objects(as in follow objects)
–Able to track and scan objects
–Figure–ground discrimination
–Fixed focus (0.2m)

• 1 month: Differentiate Faces; Preference Shown for Complex Stimuli
• 2 Months: Possess Depth Perception
• 4 Months: Colour Vision and Accommodation(they can see different colors but they can’t appreciate them cuz they dunno what the colors are)
• 6 Months: Accurate Acuity (6:6)

Question 15

What three abilities are acquired and not present at birth

Answer 15

Perceptual constancy, depth perception and object completion are acquired abilities and not present at birth.

Question 16

Define memory and what four things does it involve

Answer 16

Memory refers to the processes used to acquire, store, retain and recall information at a later time.

Memory is intrinsically linked to learning and involves:
–Acquisition of skills and associations
–Storage of information
–Learning of new information (anterograde memory)
–Recall of previously learnt information (retrograde memory).

Question 17

Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. True or false

Answer 17

True

Question 18

Explain this statement Specific memories may be highly localized, but the processes of memory are not.

Answer 18

Depending on how important memories are they may be highly localized but the processes of memory remain normal

Question 19

If you can recall properly or effortlessly then you’ve achieved short term memory true or false

Answer 19

True

Question 20

Name the three stages of memory

Answer 20

•Memory involves three stages:
–Encoding/Registration of information
–Storage of information
–Retrieval of information

Question 21

Explain encoding or registration of information

Answer 21

The initial processing of information that enables it to be analysed (requires attention).
•Encoding allows a perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored in the brain and recalled later.

Question 22

What is storage in memory and state the types of storage

State four common models of storage

Answer 22

Storage refers to the process of placing newly acquired information into memory, which is modified in the brain for easier storage.
•Types:
–Short term
–Long term
•Common Models
–Multi-store model
–Levels of processing model
–Multi-trace distributed memory model
–Neural network model

Question 23

the multi store or dual memory model is made up of three systems name them and who brought this kind of model about

Answer 23

Atkinson and Shiffrin). Sensory, short- and long-term systems.

Question 24

Explain sensory memory

Answer 24

Large capacity but information is unanalysed, unconscious and of very short duration.

It is sense specific

Sensory memory bridges the finite resolution of the senses, allowing discrete data to be ‘joined’ together for further processing (e.g. we perceive rapidly changing still images as moving television pictures).

Question 25

What kind of memory system under the multi dual model is the shortest

Answer 25

Sensory memory

Question 26

State the three things which show sensory memory is sense specific

Answer 26

echoic – auditory (up to 2 s), iconic – visual (0.5 s)

haptic – touch.

Question 27

What is short term memory?
What are the other names of short term memory
How long does it take for short term memory to fade

Answer 27

Temporary memory that allows conscious processing of information.
Primary or working memory
Fades rapidly (within 20 to 30 s) unless rehearsed, typically by repetition.

Question 28

State three characteristics of short term memory

Answer 28

-Coding is primarily acoustic.(In memory, acoustic coding is the storing of information in terms of the sound rather than the meaning of what is said. So, for example, someone might remember the sound of being shouted at but unable to remember the exact content of the communication. Repetition of words or putting information into a song or rhythm uses acoustic encoding. Learning the multiplication table, for instance, can be an acoustic process. … If you find yourself talking or reading aloud while doing your homework, you are using acoustic encoding.)
–Purely visual STM is very brief, and visual information is typically translated into acoustic code. (e.g. repeating written lists or telephone numbers out loud).
–Finite capacity that can be increased by chunking (Miller, 1956),

Question 29

Define chunking and where is visual and verbal short term memory stored

Answer 29

which is the expansion of one unit to incorporate several more by introducing a meaning, link or formula between them or. Chunking allows people to take smaller bits of information and combine them into more meaningful, and therefore more memorable, wholes(Miller ,1956
Example-using a mnemonic

Visual and verbal STM are stored in the R and L hemispheres respectively. Recall is error-free and effortless.

Question 30

In the finite capacity how is the information like and explain how coding is acoustic

Answer 30

7 +/- 2 units of information)

Repeating information to oneself or memorizing by repetition or repeating out loud

Question 31

Another name for long term memory is ?
State the characteristics of Lon term memory
Long term memory is divided into?

Answer 31

Secondary memory and it’s a permanent store

-Theoretically unlimited capacity. Requires a few uninterrupted minutes for consolidation.
–Regardless of presentation, information is stored and organized systematically and subsequent loss through forgetting is slow.
–LTM is either declarative (expressed through language and sub-divided into episodic(Episodic memory is a category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences. Your memories of your first day of school, your first kiss) and semantic(the means by which the conceptual or abstract components of an object, idea, or impression are stored in memory. For example, the item typewriter could be remembered in terms of its functional meaning or properties.)) or procedural (expressed through action).
•

Question 32

In which type of memory is Coding primarily (but not exclusively) semantic and requires motivation. Storage and retrieval require effort.

Answer 32

Long term memory

Question 33

Declarative memories are experienced explicitly (recalled completely with subjective temporal awareness).
True or false

Answer 33

True

Question 34

Who brought about the levels of processing model and from the superficial to the deep state them in order

Answer 34

1.An alternative is the Levels of processing model (Craik and Lockhart). From superficial to deep, the levels are:
–sensory, phonetic, semantic.

Question 35

STM and LTM are regarded to be processes rather than the structures of the Atkinson and Shiffrin model. T
True or false

Answer 35

True

Question 36

The deeper the level of processing what happens?

Answer 36

The deeper the level of processing, the stronger the trace-strength (i.e. the deeper the ‘impression’ the stimulus leaves) and the more likely the information will be retained.

Question 37

Define retrieval

Explain how emotions influence retrieval

Answer 37

It is the recall of information from memory (LTM to STM).

Facilitated by positive emotion because of increased rehearsal and organization
–Impaired with negative emotions/anxiety
–Facilitated by reproducing original emotional context (state-dependent learning).

Question 38

Explain primacy and recency effects

When does primacy or recency occur?

Answer 38

Accurate recollection of an item is more likely if it is one of the first or last items to be learnt.

Primacy occurs because initial items receive most consolidation and recency because immediate information is still in STM.
–

Question 39

Forgetting is more often a failure to access information than to retain it.
True or false

What is memory consolidation

Answer 39

True

Memory consolidation is defined as a time-dependent process by which recent learned experiences are transformed into long-term memory, presumably by structural and chemical changes in the nervous system

Question 40

Explain the interference theory(retroactive and proactive inhibition),the decay theory,repression and displacement

Answer 40

Interference theory
–New learning disrupts the recall of a previously learned item because it interferes with the consolidation of that item (retroactive inhibition).
–Conversely, prior learning can interfere with subsequent learning (proactive inhibition). Forgetting is item dependent.
•

Decay theory
–Memories fade with time (trace-strength diminishes).
–Information in STM is lost before being transferred to LTM, or information from LTM is lost if it is not used for a long time.
•

Repression
–Deliberate (motivated) forgetting.

•Displacement
–If the STM is ‘full’, new information displaces old information.

Question 41

State the four hypotheses of forgetting

Answer 41

Interference theory
Decay theory
Repression
Displacement