Memory Flashcards
what is memory
the ability to store and retrieve information over time
what does the model of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (A+S) in 1968 comprise of.
a flow of information through 3 stages; sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory.
Describe the role of the sensory memory in the A+S model
information enters the temporary sensory memory where sensory info is kept for a few seconds or less.
Describe the role of the short term memory in the A+S model
the info is processed into a nonsensory format and enters short term memory if relevant, here it is kept for more than a few seconds but shorter than a minute. processed further unless irrelevant and the memory is not kept active.
Describe the role of the long term memory in the A+S model
info stored for hours days weeks or years.
what is the process that keeps info in the stm?
maintenance rehearsal
what are the two types of sensory memory?
iconic - fast decaying store of visual info
echoic - fast decaying store of auditory info
what is rehearsal
process of keeping info in stm by mentally repeating it. gives the info another 15-20 seconds
what is chunking
combining small pieces of info into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in stm.
how many numbers can be held in stm
7 (Miller 1956)
what is working memory as proposed by Baddley and Hitch (1974)
it is the active manipulation and maintenance of info in stm storage
what is the working memory split into
visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, episodic buffer and the central executive
describe the visuospatial sketchpad
briefly stores visual and spatial info e.g chess board position
describe the phonological loop
briefly encodes mental representations of sounds and is made up of a short term store and an articulatory rehearsal system. the articulatory system enables you to repeat words back to yourself.
what do the PL and VS have in common
can work simultaneously and are slave systems to the central executive
what is the central executive
attentional system that coordinates and controls plans of action and output using the slave systems.
what is the episodic buffer
the temporary storage space where info from long term memory can be integrated into working memory
what is interference
the drop in accuracy and response time performance when two tasks tap into the same system.
how does interference relate to the subsystems of wm
if the dual tasks are using the same system there will be a decrease in performance due to interference
is brain training effective?
no it improves wm for short term but these effects do not last (Hulme and Melby-Lervag 2012) also tasks improvement in the brain training scenario do not carry over to other tasks
what is consolidation?
process whereby info must pass from stm into ltm in order for it to be remembered
what is encoding?
the process by which we transform what we perceive think or feel into an enduring memory
what is storage
the process of maintaining info in memory over time
what is retrieval
process of bringing to mind info that has previously been encoded and stored
what is a schema
mental models of the world that contain knowledge that helps us to encode new info into a meaningful context. these can however lead to distortion of the actual memory
what is elaborative encoding
the process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory
where does elaborative encoding take place in the brain?
left temporal lobe
lower left part of frontal lobe
what is visual imagery encoding
the process of storing new info by converting it into mental pictures.
what is a method of loci
a memory aid that associates info with mental images of locations
what is organisational coding?
the act of categorising info by noticing the relationships between a series of items
what is a mnemonic
a device for reorganising info into more meaningful patterns to remember
describe encoding of survival related info
memory mechanisms that help us to survive and reproduce should be preserved by natural selection so our memory systems should be built in a way that allows us to remember especially well the encoded info that is relevant to our survival.
what is memory storage
the process of maintaining info in memory over time
where do memories potentially reside in the brain
the synapses
what is long term potentiation
enhanced neural processing that results from the strengthening of synaptic connections
what properties indicate that long term potentiation has a role in ltm storage
it occurs in several pathways in the hippocampus
it can be induced rapidly
it can last for a long time
what does NMDA do?
it is a hippocampal receptor site that influences the flow of information from one neuron to another across the synapse by controlling the initiation of long term potential
how does NMDA work
for NMDA receptors to become active the presynaptic neuron must release glutamate which attaches to postsynaptic receptor site. excitation takes place in postsynaptic neuron. these two events initiate LTP which increases synaptic connections by allowing neurons to fire together to wire together
what is the hippocampus responsible for in memory
memory consolidation
what is spatial memory
representation that encodes where something is. hippocampal lesions obliterate this memory
describe the taxi example for hippocampus and spatial memory
take the knowledge test need to remember routes through the city. during PET scan the right hippocampus lights up. when asked to think of landmarks in same area didnt light up as much. the knowledge acquired had increased the processing ability of that part of the brain
what is retrieval and what are the two ways of doing it
bringing to mind of previously encoded and stored info
two ways = recall and recognition
describe recall
the capacity to spontaneously retrieve info from memory
recognition
the capacity to correctly match info presented with contents of memory
what is a retrieval cue?
external info that is associated with stored info and helps bring it to mind
what does the encoding specificity principle state?
a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific way that info was initially coded e.g godden and baddley shore and ocean remembering task
what is transfer appropriate processing
the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when we process info in a way that is appropriate to the retrieval cues that will be available later
when does explicit memory occur
when people intentionally retrieve past experiences e.g facts for a test
when does implicit memory occur
when past experiences influence later behaviour and performance even though people are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that they are remembering them e.g where the bathroom is in your house
what is procedural memory
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice or knowing how to do things. it is long term memory and non declarative
what brain regions involved in procedural memory
motor cortex but not hippocampal area. implicit memories may not be in hippocampus then as procedural memory not affected by hippocampal lesions
what is priming
an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus such as a word or object as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus. e.g Tulving and Schacter made ppt recall moon, later stated tide was favourite detergent but didnt know that the task had influenced their answer
what is semantic memory
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
what is episodic memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occured at a particular time and place (like a diary)
the events remembered in our episodic memory allow us to develop what
autobiographical memory - the personal record of significant events of ones life
what are flashbulb memories
detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events.
when do flashbulb memories occur
when the event is emotional and shocking to the individual. enhanced retention can be explained by the emotional arousal caused and the elaborative encoding enhacing memory e.g talking about it increases memorability
what is transcience
forgetting that occurs with the passage of time
who investigated transcience
Ebbinghaus - memorised nonsense lists and varied the time after learning to recall them. showed forgetting doesnt happen at a constant rate as time passes. most forgetting happens soon after an event occurs with increasingly less forgetting as time passes
what else erodes with time
quality of memory - it is preserved in detail for days then as time passes we remember the general memory and attempt to reconstruct the details.
why does transcience happen
decay and interference
what is serial position effect? and what does it include
the enhanced memory for events presented at the beginning and end of a learning episode
primacy effect
recency effect
what is the explanation for the serial position effect
items better encoded in ltm when learning begins because all processing resources are initially available. in the middle it is fully occupied, at the end items are less vulnerable to interference as theyre still in wm
describe the 2 types of interference
retroactive - later learning impairs memory for info acquired earlier. new info interferes with old
proactive - info already learnt comes forward to iterfere with information acquired later
what is the tip of the tongue experience
the temporary inability to retrieve info that is stored in memory accompanied by the feeling you are on the verge of recovering that info
what is blocking
happens with tip of the tongue. a failure to retrieve info that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it
what is absentmindedness
a lapse in attention that results in memory failure
what is divided attention
situations where individuals have to simultaneously monitor more than one source of info - attention is a key part of encoding info into ltm
when is absentmindedness most common
during everyday activities and happens a lot due to divided attention. as skill in a task increases moves into procedural memory and dont need to pay as much attention leads to absentmindedness
what happens in brain when attention is divided
left temporal lobe less activity. this area highlighted for importance in encoding, leads to absentminded forgetting
what is retrospective memory
remembering things that have already happened
what is prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future a failure of this would lead to forgetting to go to an appointment
differences between retrospective memory and prospecitve
r = what p = when
p - split into two what and when
r is just what
p = easier to remember as have an external cue
r = harder to remember as requires monitoring the passage of time
both require attention
what are the two types of prospective memory
event based = requires an action when an event occurs e.g post letter in post box when you get there
time based = action needed when a certain time or interval is reached e.g call friend at end of exam
what is anterograde amnesia
the inability to transfer new information from stm to ltm. no new memories
what is retrograde amnesia
the inability to retrieve info that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or operation
describe the two types of temporary amnesia
concussion - a loss of consciousness that can range from moments to weeks
fugue state - an amnesia of ones previous life and identity.
what is childhood amnesia
an inability to remember events from the early years of life
why do we get childhood amnesia
early memories are procedural and autobiographical memories depend on the maturation of of the hippocampus and neocortical regions which doesnt occur until year 2
why do we get childhood amnesia schema idea and how can it be reduced
we need schema to make sense of experiences and encode memory. by parent child reminiscing about the days activities
what is the explanation for childhood amnesia that involves wm
cognitive efficiency improves with age. children get better at filtering info as they grow
what is metamemory
the subjective awareness of ones own memory - how we know that our memories are correct
what is the feeling of knowing and why is it interesting
the subjective awareness of info that can not be retrieved from memory. it is interesting because it reveals that individuals are aware of the contents of their memory even tho the information is not explicit
what is source monitoring
recall of when where and how info was acquired
memory misattribution
assigning a recollection or idea to the wrong source
what are the three types of source monitoring
internal source monitoring - distinguishing between events that an individual thought about vs events they did
external - distinguishing between two external sources e.g did jane or sarah tell me
reality source monitoring - distinguish between an actual event and an imaginary one
misattribution may explain deja vu which is?
the feeling you have been in a situation before even though you cant recall the details
what is deja vacu
a confabulated memory where the individual is certain that the new experience is old
who is particularly prone to misattribution
people with damage to frontal lobes. because frontal lobes play significant role in effortful retrieval process
what is a false memory
recollection of events that never happened.
what is a false recognition
a feeling of familiarity about something that hasnt happened before
define the problem of BIAS
the distorting influences of present knowledge beliefs and feelings on recollection of previous experiences.
what 3 ways can bias affect memory
altering past to fit the present - consistency bias
exaggerating differences between past and present - change bias
by distorting the past to make us look better - egocentric bias
suggestibility
the tendency to incorporate misleading info from external sources into personal recollections e.g loftus and palmer car study
who proved it was possible to implant false memories
Hyman and Billings
define persistence
the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget e.g
why do our brains succumb to persistence
associated with strong emotions. amygdala is for emotions. triggers release of hormones which enhance memory for the experience
